330 ❯ GlossaryConfounding variables—in a controlled experi-
ment, factors that cause differences between the
experimental group and the control group other
than the independent variable.
Connectionism—theory that memory is stored
throughout the brain in connections between neu-
rons, many of which can work together to process
a single memory.
Consciousness—awareness of the outside world and
ourselves, including our own mental processes,
thoughts, feelings, and perceptions. EEGs of wake-
ful consciousness record alpha and beta waves.
Conservation concepts—changes in the form of an
object do not alter physical properties of mass,
volume, and number.
Consolidation—the process by which information
in short-term memory is transferred to long-term
memory, presumably because of physical changes
that occur in neurons in the brain.
Construct validity—the true measure of validity.
Construct validity is the extent to which the test
measures a given characteristic, trait, or construct.
Contact comfort—Harlow study with monkeys
and surrogate moms—need for close contact with
caregiver independent of feeding; questions Hull’s
drive-reduction theory.
Contact theory—if members of two opposing groups
are brought together in an emergency situation,
group cooperation will reduce prejudiced thinking.
Context-dependent memory—physical setting in
which a person learns information that is encoded
along with the information and becomes part of
the memory trace.
Contiguity—Pavlovian theory that classical condi-
tioning is based on the association in time of the
CS prior to UCS.
Contingency—Rescorla theory that the predict-
ability of UCS following CS determines classical
conditioning.
Continuity-discontinuity controversy—deals with
the issue of whether development is a gradual,
continuous process or a sequence of separate stages.
Continuous reinforcement—the schedule of rein-
forcement where each desired behavior emitted by
the organism is rewarded.
Contralaterality—control of one side of your body
by the other side of your brain.
Control group—in a controlled experiment, the
comparison group; the subgroup of the sample
that is similar to the experimental group in every
way except for the presence of the independent
variable.
Controlled experiment—research method in which
the experimenter manipulates the independentvariable (IV) to see the effect on the dependent
variable (DV) in order to establish a cause and
effect relationship between the IV and DV.
Conventional level—Kohlberg’s second level of
moral development, in which people realize that
society has instituted rules to maintain order and
to serve the best interests of its citizens.
Convergent thinking—conventional thinking;
thinking directed toward a single correct solution.
Conversion disorder—a somatic symptom disorder
involving the actual loss of bodily function, such as
blindness, paralysis, and numbness, due to exces-
sive anxiety with no physiological cause.
Convolutions—folding in and out of the cerebral
cortex that increases surface area of the brain.
Coping—active efforts to reduce or tolerate perceived
levels of stress.
Cornea—transparent, curved layer in the front of the
eye that bends incoming light rays.
Corpus callosum—broad band of nervous tissue that
connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres
transmitting information from one side of the
brain to the other.
Correlation coefficient (r)—a statistical measure of
the degree of relatedness or association between
two sets of data that ranges from –1 to +1.
Counseling psychologists—psychologists who help
people adapt to change or make changes in their
lifestyle.
Counterconditioning—replacing one emotion with
its exact opposite such as relaxation as opposed to
fear in phobias.
Creative self—Adler’s term for the conscious control
of problem-solving strategies in daily life.
Creativity—the ability to generate ideas and solu-
tions that are original, novel, and useful.
Criterion related validity—a measure of the extent
to which a test’s results correlate with other
ac cepted measures of what is being tested.
Critical period—a time interval during which spe-
cific stimuli have a major effect on development
that the stimuli do not produce at other times.
Critical period hypothesis—an optimal time after
birth during which an organism must be exposed
to certain influences if it is to develop properly.
(Language is an example.)
Cross-sectional research—a method of assessing
developmental changes by evaluating different age
groups of people at the same time.
Crystallized intelligence—learned knowledge and
skills such as vocabulary which tend to increase
with age.
Culture—behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions
transmitted from one generation to the next withinBM.indd 330 27-05-2018 15:32:46