Glossary ❮ 335Generalization—in classical conditioning, CRs elic-
ited by stimuli that resemble the CS used in
training. In operant conditioning, the occurrence
of responding when a stimulus similar (but not
identical) to the discriminative stimulus is present.
Generalized anxiety disorder—an anxiety disorder
characterized by persistent, pervasive feelings of
doom for at least six months not associated with a
particular object or situation.
Generalized reinforcers—secondary reinforcers that
are associated with a wide variety of other reinforc-
ers, like money, which is almost guaranteed to be
motivating.
Genital stage—the final of Freud’s psychosexual
stages, during which the adolescent develops adult
sexual desires; pleasure from intercourse and inti-
macy with opposite sex and/or same sex.
Genotype—the genetic make-up of an individual for
a trait.
Gerontologist—person who specializes in the study
of aging.
Gestalt therapy—developed by Perls, a humanistic
therapy emphasizing the unity of mind and body;
teaches the client to “get in touch” with uncon-
scious bodily sensations and emotions.
Glial cells—supportive cells of the nervous system
that guide the growth of developing neurons,
help provide nutrition for and get rid of wastes
of neurons, and form an insulating sheath around
neurons that speeds conduction.
Grammar—a system of rules that enables us to com-
municate with and understand others.
Grasping reflex—infant closes his or her fingers
tightly around an object put in his or her hand.
Group polarization—when like-minded people
share ideas, outcome is likely to be more extreme
than individual positions.
Group test—many people are tested at the same
time; cheaper and more objective scoring than
individualized testing; may not be as accurate.
Groupthink—the tendency for individuals to censor
their own beliefs to preserve the harmony of the
group; lack of diversity of viewpoints that can
cause disastrous results in decision making.
Gustation—the chemical sense of taste through
receptor cells in taste buds in fungiform papillae on
the tongue and roof of the mouth, or in the throat.
Gyri—folding-out portions of convolutions of the
cerebral cortex.
Habituation—decreasing responsiveness with
repeated presentation of the same stimulus.
Hallucinations—perceptual experiences that occur
in the absence of external stimulation of thecorresponding sensory organ; characteristic of
schizophrenia and some drug states.
Hallucinogens—also called psychedelics, a diverse
group of psychoactive drugs that alter moods,
distort perceptions, and evoke sensory images in
the absence of sensory input; include LSD, PCP,
marijuana (THC), psilocybin from mushrooms,
and mescaline (Peyote).
Hawthorn effect—when people know that they are
being observed, they change their behavior to what
they think the observer expects or to make them-
selves look good.
Health psychologists—psychologists who study how
health and illness are influenced by emotions,
stress, personality, and lifestyle.
Heritability—the proportion of phenotypic varia-
tion among individuals, in a population, that
results from genetic causes.
Heterosexuality—a tendency to direct sexual desire
toward people of the opposite sex.
Heterozygous—also called hybrid, the condition
when the genes for a trait are different.
Heuristic—a problem-solving strategy used as a
mental shortcut to quickly simplify and solve
a problem, but that does not guarantee a correct
solution.
Hierarchies—systems in which items are arranged
from more general to more specific classes.
Hierarchy of needs theory—Abraham Maslow’s
humanistic theory of priorities from the lower
levels of (1) basic biological needs, (2) safety and
security needs, (3) belongingness and love, (4) self-
esteem needs to (5) self-actualization needs; a lower
need must be fulfilled before we can fulfill the next
higher need.
Higher-order conditioning—classical conditioning
in which a well-learned CS is paired with an NS to
produce a CR to the NS.
Hindsight bias—a tendency to falsely report, after
the event, that we correctly predicted the outcome
of the event.
Hippocampus—part of the limbic system of the
brain that enables formation of new long-term
memories for facts and personal experiences.
Hoarding disorder—classified with obsessive-
compulsive and related disorders, is characterized
by persistent difficulty discarding or parting with
possessions due to a perceived need to save the
items and distress parting with them.
Holophrase—one-word meaningful utterances of
children from ages of 1 to 2.
Homeostasis—the body’s tendency to maintain a
balanced internal state.BM.indd 335 27-05-2018 15:32:47