344 ❯ GlossaryPunishment—an aversive consequence that follows
a voluntary behavior thereby decreasing the prob-
ability the behavior will be repeated.
Pupil—small, adjustable opening in the iris of the eye
that is smaller in bright light and larger in darkness.
Quasi-experiment—research method similar to a
controlled experiment, but in which random assign-
ment to groups is not possible. It can provide strong
evidence suggesting cause and effect relationships.
Random assignment—division of the sample
into groups such that every individual has an equal
chance of being put in any group or condition.
Random selection—choosing of members of a pop-
ulation such that every individual has an equal
chance of being chosen.
Range—the difference between the largest score and
the smallest score (quick and dirty).
Rational emotive therapy (RET)—cognitive treat-
ment developed by Ellis which is based on con-
fronting irrational thoughts; change in irrational
thinking will lead to a change in irrational behavior.
Rationalization—Freudian defense mechanism that
provides socially acceptable reasons for our inap-
propriate behavior.
Reaction formation—Freudian defense mechanism
involving acting in a manner exactly opposite to
our true feelings.
Real self—according to Rogers, the positive and
original organism we are before society imposes
conditions of worth on us.
Reality principle—the manner in which the ego
delays gratification and otherwise deals with the
environment in a planned rational fashion (in
Freudian theory).
Recall—retrieval of previously learned information.
Recessive gene—the gene that is hidden or not
expressed when the genes for a trait are different.
Reciprocal determinism—the characteristics of the
person, the person’s behavior, and the environ-
ment all affect one another in two-way causal
relationships (according to Bandura).
Reciprocity—compliance technique used by groups;
individuals feel obligated to go along with a request
for a small donation if they have first accepted a
small gift.
Recognition—identification of learned items when
they are presented.
Reconstruction—retrieval of memories often dis-
torted by adding, dropping, or changing details to
fit a schema.
Reflex—the simplest form of behavior.
Reflex arc—the path over which the reflex travels
that typically includes a receptor, sensory or
afferent neuron, interneuron, motor or efferent
neuron, and effector.Regression—Freudian defense mechanism charac-
terized by immature, pleasurable behavior of an
earlier level of development.
Rehabilitation psychologists—help clients with
mental retardation, developmental disabilities, and
disabilities resulting from stroke or accidents adapt
to their situations.
Rehearsal—the conscious repetition of information
to either maintain information in STM or to
encode it for storage into long-term memory.
Reinforcer—in operant conditioning, any event that
strengthens the behavior it follows.
Relearning—a measure of retention of memory that
assesses the time saved compared to learning the
first time when learning information again.
Reliability—consistency or repeatability of results.
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation
(rTMS)—a treatment for depression involving
repeated pulses through a magnetic coil positioned
above the right eyebrow of the patient that does
not result in memory loss.
Replication—repetition of the methods used in
a previous experiment to see whether the same
methods will yield the same results.
Representativeness heuristic—tendency to judge
the likelihood of things according to how they
relate to a prototype; in social psychology the pre-
judgment of people in the same way.
Repression—most frequently used Freudian defense
mechanism, characterized by unconscious forget-
ting; pushing threatening thoughts, feelings, and
memories into the unconscious mind.
Resistance—blocking of anxiety-provoking feelings
and experiences in the process of psychoanalysis.
Resistance stage—second stage of Selye’s general
adaptation syndrome characterized by the use of
“fight or flight” mechanisms to control, cope with,
or flee from the stressful situation.
Resistant attachment—mixed reactions of infants to
their mothers in the Strange Situation. They may
approach their mothers upon their return but, at
the same time, continue to cry or even push their
mothers away.
Reticular formation (a.k.a. reticular activating
system)—a network of neurons extending from
the brainstem/hindbrain into the midbrain; essen-
tial to the regulation of sleep, wakefulness, arousal,
and attention.
Retina—light-sensitive surface in the back of the
eye containing rods and cones that transduce
light energy. Has layers of bipolar cells and gan-
glion cells that transmit visual information to the
brain.
Retrieval—the process of getting information out of
memory storage.BM.indd 344 27-05-2018 15:32:48