6Chapter 1
and administrative structures based upon high popula-
tion densities and the production of substantial wealth.
In most cases, civilization also meant the develop-
ment of mathematics and written languages. Both were
needed for surveying, administration, and the distribu-
tion of goods and services in a complex society. As chiefs
became kings, the record of taxes and tributes paid, of
lands annexed, and of the provisions consumed by their
ever-larger armies acquired great significance. The desire
to record the ruler’s glorious deeds for posterity came
slightly later but was nevertheless important. Writing
gives names to individuals and permits the dead to speak
in their own words. Without it there is no history.
The emergence of societies at this level of com-
plexity affected even those areas that they did not di-
rectly control. Great civilizations are magnets that draw
other cultures into their orbits. As peoples on the pe-
riphery become involved with the larger market
through trade or tribute, cultural borrowing accelerates.
Then, as civilizations expand, they come into conflict
with one another, a process that brings neighboring
peoples into their systems of war and diplomacy as
well. By 3000 B.C., at least two such civilizations had
begun to emerge, one in the valley of Tigris and
Euphrates rivers, the other in the valley of the Nile.
Mesopotamia: The Social and Economic
Structures of Mesopotamian Life
Mesopotamia,in Greek, means the land between the
rivers, in this case the Tigris and the Euphrates (see map
1.1). It is a hot, fertile flood plain, most of which falls
Çatal Hüyük
Arabian Desert
Taur
usMts
.
Zag
ros
Mo
un
tai
ns
Syrian Desert
Sahara
Caucasus
Mts.
F
ER TI LE
CR
E S C E N T
R.
Ti
gr
is
Euphr
ate
s
R.
Ni
le
R
.
Medit
erranean
Sea
Black Sea
Caspian
Sea
Red Sea
Persian
Gulf
Jordan R.
Dead
Sea
Jerusalem
Tyre
Ebla
Byblos
Hattusha
Nineveh
Babylon
Lagash
Ur
Uruk
Assur
Eridu
Umma
Jericho
SUMER
HITTITE
EMPIRE
ASSYRIA
AKKAD
IRAN
PALESTINE
Cyprus
PHOENICIA
LOWER
EGYPT SINAI
0 200 400 Miles
0 200 400 600 Kilometers
MAP 1.
The Ancient Near East