7-6Army of the First Emperor
of Qin in pits next to his burial
mound, Lintong, China, Qin dynasty,
ca. 210 bce.Painted terracotta, average
figure 5 107 – 8 high.
The First Emperor was buried beneath
an immense mound guarded by more
than 6,000 life-size terracotta soldiers.
Although produced from common
molds, every figure has an individual-
ized appearance.
D
aoism and Confucianism are both philosophies and religions
native to China. Both schools of thought attracted wide follow-
ings during the Warring States Period (ca. 475–221 BCE), when polit-
ical turbulence led to social unrest.
Daoism emerged out of the metaphysical teachings attributed
to Laozi (604?–531? BCE) and Zhuangzi (370?–301? BCE). It takes its
name from Laozi’s treatise Daodejing (The Way and Its Power). Daoist
philosophy stresses an intuitive awareness, nurtured by harmonious
contact with nature, and shuns everything artificial. Daoists seek to
follow the universal path, or principle, called the Dao, whose fea-
tures cannot be described but only suggested through analogies. For
example, the Dao is said to be like water, always yielding but eventu-
ally wearing away the hard stone that does not yield. For Daoists,
strength comes from flexibility and inaction. Historically, Daoist prin-
ciples encouraged retreat from society in favor of personal cultiva-
tion in nature and the achievement of a perfect balance between yang,
active masculine energy, and yin,passive feminine energy.
Confucius (551–479 BCE) was born in the state of Lu (roughly
modern Shandong Province) to an aristocratic family that had fallen
on hard times. From an early age, he showed a strong interest in the
rites and ceremonies that helped unite people into an orderly soci-
ety. As he grew older, he developed a deep concern for the suffering
the civil conflict of his day caused. Thus, he adopted a philosophy he
hoped would lead to order and stability. The junzi (“superior person”
or “gentleman”), who possesses ren(“human-heartedness”), personi-
fies the ideal social order Confucius sought. Although the term junzi
originally assumed noble birth, in Confucian thought anyone can
become a junzi by cultivating the virtues Confucius espoused, espe-
cially empathy for suffering, pursuit of morality and justice, respect
for ancient ceremonies, and adherence to traditional social relation-
ships, such as those between parent and child, elder and younger sib-
ling, husband and wife, and ruler and subject.
Confucius’s disciple Mencius (or Mengzi, 371?–289? BCE) devel-
oped the master’s ideas further, stressing that the deference to age and
rank that is at the heart of the Confucian social order brings a recip-
rocal responsibility. For example, a king’s legitimacy depends on the
goodwill of his people. A ruler should share his joys with his subjects
and will know his laws are unjust if they bring suffering to the people.
Confucius spent much of his adult life trying to find rulers
willing to apply his teachings, but he died in disappointment. How-
ever, he and Mencius had a profound impact on Chinese thought
and social practice. Chinese traditions of venerating deceased ances-
tors and outstanding leaders encouraged the development of Confu-
cianism as a religion as well as a philosophic tradition. Eventually,
Emperor Wu (r. 140–87 BCE) of the Han dynasty established Confu-
cianism as the state’s official doctrine. Thereafter, it became the pri-
mary subject of the civil service exams required for admission into
and advancement within government service.
“Confucian” and “Daoist” are broad, imprecise terms scholars
often use to distinguish aspects of Chinese culture stressing social
responsibility and order (Confucian) from those emphasizing culti-
vation of individuals, often in reclusion (Daoist). But both philoso-
phies share the idea that anyone can cultivate wisdom or ability,
regardless of birth.❚RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY:Daoism and Confucianism
RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY186 Chapter 7 CHINA AND KOREA TO 1279coiffures, and facial features vary, sometimes slightly, sometimes
markedly, from statue to statue. Additional hand modeling of the
cast body parts before firing permitted the sculptors to differentiate
the figures even more. The Qin painters undoubtedly added further
variations to the appearance of the terracotta army. The result of
these efforts was a brilliant balance of uniformity and individuality.