T
he humanism that Petrarch and Boccaccio promoted during the 14th century (see Chapter 19) fully
blossomed in the 15th century. Increasingly, Italians in elite circles embraced the tenets underlying
humanism—an emphasis on education and on expanding knowledge (especially of classical antiquity),
the exploration of individual potential and a desire to excel, and a commitment to civic responsibility
and moral duty. Italy in the 1400s also enjoyed an abundance of artistic talent. The fortunate congruence
of artistic genius, the spread of humanism, and economic prosperity nourished a significantly new and
expanded artistic culture—the Renaissance. Artistic developments in 15th-century Italy forever changed
the direction and perception of art in the Western world.
For the Italian humanists, the quest for knowledge began with the legacy of the Greeks and Ro-
mans—the writings of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Ovid, and others. The development of a literature based
on the commonly spoken Tuscan dialect expanded the audience for humanist writings. Further, the in-
vention of movable metal type in Germany around 1450 (see Chapter 20) facilitated the printing and
widespread distribution of books. Italians enthusiastically embraced this new printing process. By 1464
Subiaco (near Rome) boasted a press, and by 1469 Venice had established one as well. Among the first
books printed in Italy using this new press was Dante’s vernacular epic about Heaven, Purgatory, and
Hell,Divine Comedy.The production of editions in Foligno (1472), Mantua (1472), Venice (1472),
Naples (1477 and 1478–1479), and Milan (1478) testifies to the extensive popularity of Dante’s work.
The humanists also avidly acquired information in a wide range of subjects, including botany, geology,
geography, optics, medicine, and engineering. Leonardo da Vinci’s phenomenal expertise in many fields—
from art and architecture to geology, aerodynamics, hydraulics, botany, and military science, among others—
still defines the modern notion of a “Renaissance man.” Humanism also fostered a belief in individual poten-
tial and encouraged individual achievement as well as civic responsibility. Whereas people in medieval society
accorded great power to divine will in determining the events that affected lives, those in Renaissance Italy
adopted a more secular stance. Humanists not only encouraged individual improvement but also rewarded
excellence with fame and honor. Achieving and excelling through hard work became moral imperatives.
Fifteenth-century Italy witnessed constant fluctuations in its political and economic spheres, including
shifting power relations among the numerous city-states and the rise of princely courts (see “Italian Princely
Courts and Artistic Patronage,” page 569).Condottieri (military leaders) with large numbers of mercenary21
ITALY, 1400 TO 1500
21-1A
ROSSELLINO,
Tomb of
Leonardo Bruni,
ca. 1444–1450.