Akkad and the Third Dynasty of Ur
In 2332 BCE, the loosely linked group of cities known as Sumer
came under the domination of a great ruler, Sargon of Akkad (r.
2332–2279 BCE). Archaeologists have yet to locate the specific site of
the city of Akkad, but it was in the vicinity of Babylon. The Akkadi-
ans were Semitic in origin—that is, they were a Near Eastern people
who spoke a language related to Hebrew and Arabic. Their language,Akkadian, was entirely different from the language of Sumer, but
they used the Sumerians’ cuneiform characters for their written doc-
uments. Under Sargon (whose name means “true king”) and his fol-
lowers, the Akkadians introduced a new concept of royal power
based on unswerving loyalty to the king rather than to the city-state.
During the rule of Sargon’s grandson, Naram-Sin (r. 2254–2218
BCE), governors of cities were considered mere servants of the king,
who in turn called himself “King of the Four Quarters”—in effect,
ruler of the earth, akin to a god.S
eals have been unearthed in great numbers at sites throughout
Mesopotamia. Generally made of stone, seals of ivory, glass,
and other materials also survive. The seals take two forms: flat stamp
seals and cylinder seals.The latter have a hole drilled lengthwise
through the center of the cylinder so that they could be strung and
worn around the neck or suspended from the wrist. Cylinder seals
(FIG. 2-11) were prized possessions, signifying high positions in soci-
ety, and they frequently were buried with the dead.
The primary function of cylinder seals, however, like the earlier
stamp seals, was not to serve as items of adornment. The Sumerians
(and other peoples of the Near East) used both stamp and cylinder
seals to identify their documents and protect storage jars and doors
against unauthorized opening. The oldest seals predate the inven-
tion of writing and conveyed their messages with pictographs that
ratified ownership. Later seals often bear long cuneiform inscrip-
tions and record the names and titles of rulers, bureaucrats, and
deities. Although sealing is increasingly rare, the tradition lives on
today whenever a letter is sealed with a lump ofwax and then
stamped with a monogram or other identifying mark. Customs offi-
cials often still seal packages and sacks with official stamps when
goods cross national borders.In the ancient Near East, artists decorated both stamp and cylin-
der seals with incised designs, producing a raised pattern when the
seal was pressed into soft clay. (Cylinder seals largely displaced stamp
seals because they could be rolled over the clay and thus cover a greater
area more quickly.) FIG. 2-11shows a cylinder seal from the Royal
Cemetery at Ur and a modern impression made from it. Note how
cracks in the stone cylinder become raised lines in the impression and
how the engraved figures, chairs, and cuneiform characters appear in
relief. Continuous rolling of the seal over a clay strip results in a re-
peating design, as the illustration also demonstrates at the edges.
The miniature reliefs the seals produce are a priceless source of
information about Mesopotamian religion and society. Without
them, archaeologists would know much less about how Mesopo-
tamians dressed and dined; what their shrines looked like; how they
depicted their gods, rulers, and mythological figures; how they fought
wars; and what role women played in ancient Near Eastern society.
Clay seal impressions excavated in architectural contexts shed a wel-
come light on the administration and organization of Mesopota-
mian city-states. Mesopotamian seals are also an invaluable resource
for art historians, providing them with thousands of miniature ex-
amples of relief sculpture that span roughly 3,000 years.Mesopotamian Seals
MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES2-11Banquet scene, cylinder seal (left) and its modern impression (right), from the tomb of Pu-abi (tomb 800), Royal Cemetery, Ur (modern Tell
Muqayyar), Iraq, ca. 2600 bce.Lapis lazuli, 2high. British Museum, London.
Seals were widely used in Mesopotamia to identify and secure goods. Artists incised designs into stone cylinders and then rolled them over clay to
produce miniature artworks like this banquet scene.Akkad and the Third Dynasty of Ur 391 in.