D
uring the 17th and early 18th centuries, numerous geopolitical shifts occurred in Europe as the for-
tunes of the individual countries waxed and waned. Pronounced political and religious friction re-
sulted in widespread unrest and warfare. Indeed, between 1562 and 1721, all of Europe was at peace for
a mere four years. The major conflict of this period was the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648), which en-
snared Spain, France, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Poland, the Ottoman Em-
pire, and the Holy Roman Empire. Although the outbreak of the war had its roots in the conflict between
militant Catholics and militant Protestants, the driving force quickly shifted to secular, dynastic, and na-
tionalistic concerns. Among the major political entities vying for expanded power and authority in Eu-
rope were the Bourbon dynasty of France and the Habsburg dynasties of Spain and the Holy Roman
Empire. The war, which concluded with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, was largely responsible for the
political restructuring of Europe (MAP25-1). As a result, the United Provinces of the Netherlands (the
Dutch Republic), Sweden, and France expanded their authority. Spanish and Danish power diminished.
In addition to reconfiguring territorial boundaries, the Treaty of Westphalia in essence granted freedom
of religious choice throughout Europe. This treaty thus marked the abandonment of the idea of a united
Christian Europe and accepted the practical realities of secular political systems. The building of today’s
nation-states was emphatically under way.
The 17th century also brought heightened economic competition to Europe. Much of the founda-
tion for worldwide mercantilism—extensive voyaging and geographic exploration, improved cartogra-
phy, and advances in shipbuilding—had been laid in the previous century. In the 17th century, however,
changes in financial systems, lifestyles, and trading patterns, along with expanding colonialism, fueled
the creation of a worldwide marketplace. The Dutch founded the Bank of Amsterdam in 1609, which
eventually became the center of European transfer banking. By establishing a system in which merchant
firms held money on account, the bank relieved traders of having to transport precious metals as pay-
ment. Trading practices became more complex. Rather than simple reciprocal trading, triangular trade
(trade among three parties) allowed for a larger pool of desirable goods. Exposure to an ever-growing ar-
ray of goods affected European diets and lifestyles. Coffee (from island colonies) and tea (from China)25