T
he revolution of 1789 initiated a new era in France, but the overthrow of the monarchy also opened
the door for Corsican-born Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821) to exploit the resulting disarray and
establish a different kind of monarchy with himself at its head. In 1799, after serving in various French
army commands, including leading major campaigns in Italy and Egypt, Napoleon became first consul
of the French Republic, a title with clear and intentional links to the ancient Roman Republic (see Chap-
ter 10). During the next 15 years, the ambitious general gained control of almost all of continental Eu-
rope in name or through alliances (MAP30-1). In May 1804, for example, he became king of Italy. Later
that year, the pope journeyed to Paris for Napoleon’s coronation as Emperor of the French (FIG. 30-2).
But in 1812, Napoleon launched a disastrous invasion of Russia that ended in retreat, and in 1815 he suf-
fered a devastating loss at the hands of the British at Waterloo in present-day Belgium. Forced to abdi-
cate the imperial throne, Napoleon went into exile on the island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic,
dying there six years later.
Following Napoleon’s exile, the political geography of Europe changed dramatically (MAP30-2),
but in many ways the more significant changes during the first half of the 19th century were technolog-
ical and economic. The Industrial Revolution caused a population boom in European cities, and rail-
roads spread to many parts of the Continent,facilitating the transportation of both goods and people.
During this period, the arts also underwent important changes. The century opened with Neoclassicism
still supreme, but by 1870 Romanticism and Realism in turn had captured the imagination of artists and
public alike. New construction techniques had a major impact on architectural design, and the invention
of photography revolutionized picture making of all kinds.
Art under Napoleon
At the fall of the French revolutionary Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794) and his party in 1794,
Jacques-Louis David, who had aligned himself personally and through his work with the revolutionary
forces (see Chapter 29), barely escaped with his life. He stood trial and went to prison. After his release in
30