T
he momentous Western developments of the early 19th century—industrialization, urbanization,
and increased economic and political interaction worldwide—matured quickly during the latter
half of the century. The Industrial Revolution in England spread to France (MAP31-1) and the rest of
Europe and to the United States. Because of this dramatic expansion, historians often refer to the third
quarter of the 19th century as the second Industrial Revolution. Whereas the first Industrial Revolution
centered on textiles, steam, and iron, the second focused on steel, electricity, chemicals, and oil. The dis-
coveries in these fields provided the foundation for developments in plastics, machinery, building con-
struction, and automobile manufacturing and paved the way for the invention of the radio, electric light,
telephone, and electric streetcar.
One of the most significant consequences of industrialization was urbanization. The number and
size of Western cities grew dramatically during the later 19th century, largely due to migration from rural
regions. Rural dwellers relocated to urban centers because expanded agricultural enterprises squeezed
the smaller property owners from the land. The widely available work opportunities in the cities, espe-
cially in the factories, were also a major factor in this migration. In addition, improving health and living
conditions in the cities contributed to their explosive growth.
MARXISM AND DARWINISMThe rise of the urban working class was fundamental to the ideas
of Karl Marx (1818–1883), one of the era’s dominant figures. Born in Trier, Marx received a doctorate in
philosophy from the University of Berlin. After moving to Paris, he met fellow German Friedrich Engels
(1820–1895), who became his lifelong collaborator. Together they wrote The Communist Manifesto
(1848), which called for the working class to overthrow the capitalist system. Like other 19th-century em-
piricists, Marx believed that scientific, rational law governed nature and, indeed, all human history. For
Marx, economic forces based on class struggle induced historical change. Throughout history, insisted
Marx, those who controlled the means of production conflicted with those whose labor they exploited for
their own enrichment. This constant opposition—a dynamic he called “dialectical materialism”—gener-
ated change. Marxism’s ultimate goal was to create a socialist state in which the working class seized power
and destroyed capitalism. Marxism held great appeal for the oppressed as well as many intellectuals.
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