Mbebma, Nzinga (Afonso I) 69Portuguese infl uence also existed with the legal system,
feudal titles, and court procedures. Besides incorporating
Portuguese culture and systems, Mbemba ruled his ter-
ritory, which extended from present-day Angola to the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, with an iron gauntlet.
As a ruler over the northern province of Nsundi, Mbemba
extended the kingdom’s borders north of the Congo River’s
natural boundary. Territorial expansion was a major feat,
which gave the kingdom jurisdiction over another area plus
allowed Mbemba to incorporate new inhabitants. Guiding
his political leadership was his acceptance and adoption of
Christianity.
As a devout Christian, Mbemba diff ered from his fa-
ther, who renounced the religion, and grew quite skeptical
of his son. For his convictions, Mbemba lost control over
his province, and had to regain his father’s trust, which he
succeeded in doing. His allegiance to Christianity was not
just an individual pledge, as he tried to convert his king-
dom’s people to his newfound faith and to marry Chris-
tianity with his indigenous religions. All Europeans with
the exceptions of teachers and missionaries forcibly left the
kingdom as he expulsed them. Mbemba not only estab-
lished the Catholic Church in the Kongo, he also provided
for its fi nancing. Subjects paid taxes. Schools also marked
this religious transition and cultural infusion that occurred.
All provinces had schools, however, only for persons of
nobility; commoners received no educational training. He
even enhanced his own education by studying theologi-
cal books, and according to the Portuguese Royal Captain
Rui d’Aguiar, Mbemba was so committed to learning that
he fell asleep while reading the works. His insatiable appe-
tite for education expanded to his brethren and subjects,
whom he sent to study in Europe. His son Henrique Kinu a
Mbemba, for example, earned the title of bishop of Utica, in
North Africa; however, although the Vatican conferred him
this position, he actually served the Kongo region from the
early 1520s to his death in 1531.
Mbemba also became embroiled in international mat-
ters. Chief among them was the role of the Portuguese and
the slave trade. He disapproved of the practice even though
slavery predated the Europeans’ arrival. Several letters
penned, beginning in 1526, documented his complaints
and accusations that the Portuguese illegally purchased
slaves. Mbemba also mentioned visible signs of property
ownership, manner of capture, and inference of travel
from the interior to the coast. In providing a descriptionSocieties with mixed matrilineal and patrilineal char-
acteristics are not uncommon when examining forms of
social organization globally. Although some scholars and
policy makers have suggested that matrilineal and matriar-
chal patterns contribute to family dysfunction and welfare
dependency, others note their contributions to enhanced
social functioning. Few quantitative studies have examined
low levels of paternal confi dence comparatively between
patrilineal and matrilineal societies and any association
this may have with family dysfunction and dependency.
Considering the persistence of current sociodemo-
graphic trends in modern times, specifi cally the economic
disenfranchisement of African American males, high rates
of never married, divorced, widowed, and separated Afri-
can American females, high mortality and incarceration
rates for African American males, and the historic higher
demand for the labor of African American females, it is
highly likely matrilineal social organizational patterns will
endure in black life and culture.
See also: Coromantee; Gold Coast; Kingdom of Asante
Sharon Hines-SmithBibliography
Allison, Robert. “Th e Origins of African American Culture.” Jour-
nal of Interdisciplinary History 30 (1999):475–81.
Dixon, Patricia. African American Relationships, Marriages, and
Families. New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis, 2007.
Holden, C., R. Sear, and R. Mace. “Matriliny as Daughter- Biased
Investment.” Evolution and Human Behavior 24 (2003):
99–112.
Smith, Sharon. African American Daughters and Elderly Mothers:
Examining Experiences of Grief, Loss, and Bereavement. New
York: Garland, 1998.
Sudarkasa, N. “African American Families and Family Values.”
In Black Families, edited by H. P. McAdoo, 9–40. Th ousand
Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997.
Mbebma, Nzinga (Afonso I)
Born the son of King Nkuwu Nzinga, Mbemba (1460–1543),
commonly referred to as Afonso I, ruled the Kingdom of
the Kongo for 24 years from 1509 to 1543. His reign, dur-
ing the fi rst half of the 16th century, highlighted peaceful
interactions with the kingdom and Prince Henry the Navi-
gator’s Portugal. Initially, relations were so amicable that he
instituted Portuguese as the language of stately business.