70 Atlantic African, American, and European Backgrounds to Contact, Commerce, and EnslavementBibliography
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F. Watts, 2000.
Gray, Richard. “A Kongo Princess, the Kongo Ambassadors and
the Papacy.” Journal of Religion in Africa 29, no. 2 (1999):
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Kongo and the Lowcountry South in the Era of Slavery. Baton
Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2007.Middle Colonies
Th e middle colonies of Pennsylvania, New York, and New
Jersey are bordered on their north by New England and on
the south by the Chesapeake states of Maryland, Delaware,
and Virginia. Th eir geographic location allowed for the dif-
fusion of ideas, customs, and economics from both north
and south to collide to form a distinct colonial identity. Th e
African American experience in the middle colonies began
with slavery and eventually transformed to wage labor
through emancipation programs that developed along with
Enlightenment ideas during the American Revolution.
However, even aft er Emancipation, African Americans ex-
perienced discrimination and restrictions on their move-
ments, professions, and living arrangements.
Th e fi rst African Americans in the middle colonies ar-
rived from the West Indies in bondage. In 1626, members
of the Dutch West India Company diverted a shipment of
slaves from their colonial interests in the Caribbean to the
new colony of New Netherland. Th e city of New Amsterdam
(New York) desired these slaves because the colony was suf-
fering a labor shortage. Low colonial migration as well as
small numbers of indentured servants caused the Dutch to
look toward slavery to provide them with the labor neces-
sary for the colony to expand and survive. In New Nether-
land, slaves were used to build roads and forts for defense,
as well as clear land for agriculture, providing the Dutch
settlers with a constant supply of food and defenses against
British and Indian incursions.
Th e presence of slaves in New Amsterdam soon spread
across the Hudson River into New Jersey. Dutch settlersof Portuguese method of slave acquisition, Mbemba distin-
guishes between illegitimate and legitimate trade.
Amid his letter-writing campaign and slavery’s docu-
mentation, Mbemba issued a threat. In no uncertain terms,
he told the Portuguese that he would close the slave trade
altogether, an idea that he later aborted for the establish-
ment of an examination committee. Th e newly constituted
examination committee had this charge: to determine the
legality of all enslaved persons. Mbemba wanted to control
the exchange of human chattel for Portuguese merchan-
dise by mandating that any European wishing to purchase
goods had to inform three Kongo noblemen and offi cials of
the Kongo court. Failure to comply with the terms meant a
loss of goods acquired by the Portuguese. Mbemba negoti-
ated an agreement, which comprised two physicians, two
apothecaries, and one surgeon, all medically qualifi ed to
treat the diseases that plagued the kingdom. Kongo inhab-
itants also received European fi rearms, horses, cattle, and
goods from the Americas. For these inducements, Mbemba
allowed slavery to continue. In fact, Mbemba retained his
own supply of slaves.
Noted principally for his promotion of Christianity as
the state religion, Mbemba left an impressionable legacy.
His stance on slavery was admirable, although he contra-
dicted his public convictions when he held his own slaves.
Th e fact that he served as a barrier to Portuguese capitalism
and mercenary goals was a testament to his character. His
“reward” for this stalwartness was an unsuccessful assas-
sination attempt. On Easter Day in 1540, eight Portuguese
tried to shoot him. When he died, Mbemba was at least 80
years old in 1542 or 1543. His death, which was marred by
a disintegrated state, in large part due to the Portuguese
presence, sparked a succession battle. Grandchildren and
heirs desiring his coveted position fought among them-
selves. One son Pedro emerged from the familial fray to
succeed his father, but his term was short-lived. Mbemba’s
grandson Diogo overthrew Pedro in 1545, forcing him
to seek refuge in a church. All other future leaders had
Mbemba’s blood, as descent fl owed linearly. Th ree of his
daughters, for example, gave birth to future kings. Mbemba
reaped success as a leader, parent, politician, and pragma-
tist. His ideologies showcased his resolve and belief in the
Christian faith.
See also: Kongo Kingdom; West-Central Africa
Dawne Y. Curry