102 Atlantic African, American, and European Backgrounds to Contact, Commerce, and Enslavementadministrator. He divided the Songhai Empire into sepa-
rate provinces and placed each province under the control
of its own governor. Sunni Ali developed new methods of
farming and created for Songhai a professional navy. Sunni
Ali embraced and respected the Islamic faith of his trad-
ing partners, which accounted for much of his success as a
ruler. By the time of his death in 1492 the Songhai Empire
surpassed the greatness of the other West African empires
that preceded it.
Following the death of Sunni Ali, his son, Sunni Baru,
ascended to the throne for a short time before he was over-
thrown by Askia Muhammad Toure. Askia Muhammad
Toure had been a general under Sunni Ali and was success-
ful as a ruler largely as a result of his acceptance of Islam.
He appointed Muslim leaders to the larger districts of his
empire and applied Islamic law in place of Songhai’s origi-
nal code of laws.
Askia Muhammad Toure greatly improved the learn-
ing centers of the Songhai by encouraging scholars to come
from other parts of Africa as well as Europe and Asia to
settle in Timbuktu and Jenne, and built as many as 180 Ko-
ranic schools in Timbuktu alone. Th e Sankore University in
Timbuktu developed a reputation for scholarship in rheto-
ric, logic, Islamic law, grammar, astronomy, history, and
geography.
During his reign, the Songhai Empire was character-
ized by order, stability, and prosperity. He opened up the
ranks of government service. Previously, the status of the
leaders of the empire was determined upon the basis of
birth. Under Askia Muhammad Toure, however, men could
achieve high offi ce based upon their scholarship and intel-
lect regardless of their social position. Askia Muhammad
Toure also organized and established a permanent profes-
sional army that enabled him to expand the territory of
Songhai and turn the Songhai Empire into the largest em-
pire in western and central Sudan.
He was deposed by his son, and in the subsequent
confl icts among his successors, the empire slowly began
to decline. Th e break-up of the state was accelerated by a
Moroccan invasion in 1591. Th e end of the Songhai Em-
pire also meant the end of the region’s history as a trading
center.
See also: Ghana; Mali; Sudanic Empires; Timbuktu; Toure,
Askia MuhammadMoshe TerdimanSee also: Evangelism; Middle Colonies; New York Revolt
of 1712
Kathleen HladkyBibliography
Comminey, Shawn. “Th e Society for the Propagation of the Gos-
pel in Foreign Parts and Black Education in South Caro-
lina, 1702–1764.” Th e Journal of Negro History 84, no. 4
(1999):360–69.
O’Connor, Daniel. Th ree Centuries of Mission: Th e United Society
for the Propagation of the Gospel, 1701 –2000. London: Con-
tinuum, 2000.
Vilbert, Faith. “Th e Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
in Foreign Parts: Its Work for the Negroes in North Amer-
ica before 1783.” Th e Journal of Negro History 18, no. 2
(1933):171–212.
Songhai
Songhai, or Songhay, is the largest of the former empires
in the western Sudan region of North Africa. Th e state was
founded in ca. 700 by Berbers on the Middle Niger, in what
is now central Mali. Th e rulers accepted Islam ca. 1000. Its
power was much increased by Sunni Ali (1464–1492), who
occupied Timbuktu in 1468. Songhai reached its greatest
extent under Askia Muhammad I (ca. 1493–1528).
Th e Songhai originated in the Dendi region of north-
western Nigeria and ended up in western Sudan, centered
on the Big Bend of the Niger River. Th ere are two capitals in
Songhai. Th e fi rst capital is Kukiya, which is located north
of the Falls of Labezanga (the present frontier between the
republics of Mali and Niger). Th e second capital, Gao, devel-
oped north of Kukiya at the terminus of the Saharan tracks.
Th e Songhai Empire, regarded by scholars and layper-
sons alike as one of Africa’s greatest empires, rose to promi-
nence in the late 1400s during the rule of Sunni Ali. During
his reign, most of what was formerly the Ghanaian and Mali
empires was incorporated into the Songhai Empire.
Sunni Ali marched on Timbuktu and captured it along
with its great University of Sankore, which had thousands
of students from many parts of the world. During the wag-
ing of a seven-year war, Sunni Ali captured the city of Jenne;
he then married the queen of Jenne, Queen Dara, and they
reigned together. Sunni Ali eventually gained control over
the entire middle Niger region.
Sunni Ali, in addition to restoring order to the Sudan
(the Arabic expression for West Africa), was also a brilliant