Blackface Minstrelsy 159the European traditions of the theater of misrule and festi-
val revelry, events where clowns with blackened faces oft en
off ered parodies of and against standing social hierarchies.
In early 19th-century America, white actors also had oc-
casion to blacken their faces to perform in stage parodies
of European opera. More a form of burlesque than of what
would later become minstrel shows, these opera parodies
might off er such fare as Lo, Som am de Beauties (based on
Bellini’s La Sonnambula) and Lucy Did Sham a Moor (based
on Donizetti’s Lucia du Lammermoor). Th e thrust of pro-
ductions such as these was less to imitate or represent black
behavior and culture than to lampoon the latest popular
opera—a tradition long popular on both sides of the Atlan-
tic. But it was an independent (and generally deeply fl awed)
imitation of black culture that formed the central conceit of
blackface minstrelsy and sustained the tradition well into
the 20th century.
Th e trend of distinct blackface performance was well
established by the late 1820s, as musicians began to capi-
talize on the growing interest among Northern audiences
in black culture and music. Performers such as George
Washington Dixon and J. W. Sweeney found notoriety by
performing musical numbers in blackface between the acts
of more mainstream entertainments. Notably, it was not
uncommon for street performers who actually were black
to off er their routines in the byways of most Northern cit-
ies, but because white people were commonly uncomfort-
able about direct contact with “negroes,” white performers
in blackface posed a more acceptable option. Some of these
earlier performers did have direct experience of black cul-
ture, either through association with free blacks or through
youths spent in the slaveholding South. But many sim-
ply used blackface as a guise and off ered as the music of
blacks what were in fact versions and adaptations of British
melodies.
Although this brand of itinerant blackface minstrelsy
was a common diversion, it was the work of minstrel show-
man T. D. Rice that would propel the medium to a cultural
phenomenon. While on tour in 1828, Rice happened to
see an old, crippled black man performing for money in
the street, dancing a strange step and singing, “Weel about
to turn about and do jus so / Ebery time I weel about, I
jump Jim Crow.” Rice, a particularly capable dancer, was
so taken by the routine that he resolved to learn the song
and dance himself and off er it as part of a performance he
was to do that night. Aft er learning the song and the stepsmembers and friends to gather together and celebrate the
festive occasion with food, drink, entertainment, and mer-
riment. Depending on the preferences of the bride and
groom, any number of ethnic and familial specialties may
make their way onto African American wedding reception
tables. Banquet menus may include regional specialties as
diverse as Maryland crab cakes, Caribbean-inspired black
cake, seafood gumbo, okra and tomatoes, red velvet cake,
or palm wine. Although the wedding ceremony may have
a more subdued, religious, or spiritual theme, the reception
may include a live band, drummers, or DJ playing songs by
black artists.
See also: Africanisms; Black Churches; Black Folk Culture
Lori BaptistaBibliography
Cole, Harriet. Jumping the Broom: Th e African-American Wedding
Planner. New York: Henry Holt, 1993.
Cole, Harriet. Vows: Th e African-American Couple’s Guide to De-
signing a Sacred Ceremony. New York: Simon & Schuster,
2004.
Sturgis, Ingrid. Th e Nubian Wedding Book. New York: Crown
Publishers, 1997.
Blackface Minstrelsy
Blackface minstrelsy was one of the central cultural forces
in America from the early 19th century through the mid-
20th century. It was arguably the most popular form of
entertainment in the nation throughout most of the 19th
century, appealing primarily to audiences that were as vast
and diverse as America itself. Its primary agents were in-
dividual white performers and later troupes of four to fi ve
“Ethiopian delineators” who blackened their skin with
burnt cork and performed dances, songs, and skits that they
claimed were representative of genuine slave culture. In es-
sence, minstrel shows constituted America’s fi rst national
theater. It is also the source of damaging racial stereotypes
that have had a devastating impact on American attitudes
about African Americans and other ethnic populations.
Th e practice of white performers darkening their faces
with makeup to perform as black characters was initially
sparked by necessity in the early years of the 19th-century;
black actors were not allowed to perform in white produc-
tions. Th e early practice of blackface also harkened back to