useful for his process than the traditional
materials used by scribes.
Not a wealthy man, Gutenberg was
forced to borrow money and accept part-
ners in order to purchase materials neces-
sary for his enterprise. While he refined
his system he made every effort to keep it
a secret from his partners and the world at
large. Through the 1440s he improved his
invention, borrowing money from a rela-
tive in order to buy needed materials and
signing another partnership with the
wealthy Johann Fust, who advanced Guten-
berg the hefty sum of eight hundred guil-
ders. Impatient to see a return on his in-
vestment, Fust sued Gutenberg after
making another investment of eight hun-
dred guilders, accusing Gutenberg of em-
bezzling the money, and won his case in
the court of the archbishop. The court
proceedings refer to works already printed
by Gutenberg, which included a “42-line
Bible,” today known as the Gutenberg
Bible, which was created sometime before
1455, as well as aPsalter(a volume of the
Book of Psalms), books of Latin grammar,
and printed indulgences issued by the
church. The Gutenberg Bibles were printed
on paper and vellum; while the letters were
printed by the type, the book was illus-
trated by hand. About sixty Gutenberg
Bibles are known, with eleven of them
printed on vellum (calf skin) and the rest
on paper.
With Gutenberg’s type and printing
press in his possession, Fust began print-
ing his own versions of these works, em-
ploying Gutenberg’s assistant Peter Schoef-
fer, a skilled manuscript scribe who had
helped Gutenberg design his type. In
Mainz, Fust and Schoeffer produced the
first European book to carry the name of
its printers, aPsalter, in 1457. Historians
believe that the multicolored letters and
intricate decorations of the book were
Gutenberg’s work.
In the meantime, Gutenberg estab-
lished another workshop and created an-
other Bible in around 1460. In 1462 he left
Mainz and moved to Eltville, where he
built a new press. During the next genera-
tion, civic violence in Mainz drove many
printers out of the city; the capital of the
industry moved to Italy and the city of
Venice, which became an important book-
publishing center during the Renaissance.
In 1465 Gutenberg was granted a pen-
sion of grain, wine, and clothing from the
archbishop of Mainz. By the time of his
death, his printing technology was spread-
ing throughout Europe. The use of the
printing press allowed publishers to create
large numbers of identical books, which
effectively spread classical literature, reli-
gious tracts, political pamphlets, and other
works to the general population. With this
knowledge and information becoming
more widespread, a rebirth of learning and
debate was kindled throughout Europe,
ending the monopoly on intellectual pur-
suits by the nobility and a privileged class
of scholars, monks, and scribes. Historians
credit printing as an impetus to the Prot-
estant Reformation; Martin Luther’s writ-
ings and important Protestant treatises
were printed in the form of broadsheets in
the early sixteenth century.Gutenberg, Johannes