The Renaissance

advanced thinking, enlightened rule, the
new trend of humanistic learning and
scholarship, and the generous patronage of
town fathers and aristocrats. Universities
competed for renowned professors, who in
turn attracted the best scholars. Members
of the expanding middle class, at the same
time, sought out higher education for their
sons, who trained themselves in the law,
medicine, and for careers as administra-
tors and diplomats. The University of Bo-
logna in northern Italy became a center
for the study of the revived Roman law,

Within the university, students at-
tended lectures by professors, who spoke
and debated in Latin. The courses relied
on the teachings of ancient philosophers
such as Aristotle, Galen, Hippocrates, and
the Arab scientist Avicenna. Following the
humanistic philosophy, students critically
examined classical texts, studying the origi-
nal language, whether Greek or Latin, in
order to get at the intended meaning. This
was an important break with medieval
higher education, in which professors sim-
ply handed down the accepted traditional

interpretation of the ancient texts and stu-

dents were discouraged from critical think-

ing.

After a course of study, the student was

put through a degree examination by pro-

fessors and scholars, who tested his mas-

tery of the subject and his ability to de-

fend his ideas in open debate. The

bachelor’s degree enabled further study,

while the master’s was a license to teach.

The doctorate was awarded for scholars

devoted to the study of a particular field

and the contribution of original knowl-

edge to that field. Most universities during

the Renaissance had several hundred stu-

dents, while the largest at Bologna and

Paris had a few thousand. Students within

the universities organized themselves ac-

cording to their homelands. At the largest

universities these student unions held con-

siderable power, making demands for bet-

ter working and living conditions and in

some places passing on the hiring of new

professors by the university.

SEEALSO: Aristotelianism; humanism

universities