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negotiation of Indian land cessions. Knox is con-
cerned that more warfare will break out on the
frontier if whites are permitted to overrun Indian
territory before the U.S. government can agree on
proper compensation by treaty with the Indian
tribes involved. Knox is less motivated by fairness
than by fear. The new U.S. government can ill af-
ford the resources needed to fight drawn-out wars
with western Indians.
“That the civilization of the In-
dians would be an operation
of complicated difficulty; that it
would require the highest knowl-
edge of the human character,
and a steady perseverance in a
wise system for a series of years,
cannot be doubted.... Were it
possible to introduce among
the Indian tribes a love for ex-
clusive property, it would be a
happy commencement of the
business.”
—Secretary of War Henry Knox
to President George Washington
in 1789August 7
Indian affairs becomes the responsibility of
the new War Department.
By an act of Congress, the War Department is cre-
ated to oversee U.S. military operations. Largely
because many Indian groups maintain allegiance
to the British or the Spanish, the new department
is also charged with the responsibility for the gov-
ernment’s dealings with Indian tribes. A separate
bureau for administering Indian affairs will be es-
tablished within the department 35 years later (see
entry for 1824).
September 17President George Washington calls for
Senate ratification of Indian treaties.
The new U.S. Constitution gives the executive
branch the responsibility for negotiating treaties
with foreign nations, but they must also be ratified
by the Senate. These stipulations do not, however,
explicitly state that Indian tribes are to be considered
foreign nations in this context. President George
Washington addresses this issue by advising the
Senate to insist on ratifying all Indian treaties “as a
check on the mistakes and indiscretions of ministers
or commissioners.” Following an extended debate,
the Senate agrees to Washington’s request.1790Congress passes the first Indian Trade and
Intercourse Act.
Congress fears that greedy traders are threatening
national security by antagonizing the Indians they
do business with. To help maintain peace between
Indians and traders, it passes the Trade and Inter-
course Act, the first of a series of laws intended to
regulate the fur trade. The act outlined means of
licensing traders and sets out punishments for trad-
ing without a license and for committing crimes
against Indians.Spain grants England trading rights in the
Pacific Northwest.
As the sea otter fur trade (see entry for 1778) be-
came more profitable, a Spanish expedition set out
for Nootka Sound near Vancouver Island in 1789
and seized three trading ships of their British rivals.
The incident brought Spain and England close to
war. To avoid more conflict, Spain agrees to the
Nootka Convention, in which it gives England the
right to trade along the coast of the Pacific North-
west. As a result, England and the United States will
come to dominate trade with Northwest Indians
and will become the main foreign competitors for
control of the region.