Chronology of American Indian History

November

The National Congress of American Indians
is founded.
Eighty Indians representing 50 tribes convene
in Denver, Colorado, for the first meeting of the
National Congress of American Indians (NCAI).
The idea for the congress had originated at a 1942
meeting of Indian employees of the Bureau of In-
dian Affairs, who realized the need for a national
organization through which Indians from all tribes
could voice their concerns. Particularly instrumen-
tal in its formation was D’Arcy McNickle (see entry
for 1936), a Flathead anthropologist who was then
serving as special assistant to Commissioner of In-
dian Affairs John C. Collier.
Like the Society of American Indians (SAI)—
an earlier pan-Indian organization (see entry for
OCTOBER 12, 1911)—the members of the NCAI
are largely well-educated professionals. Unlike the
SAI, however, the new group is concerned with
tribal as well as civil rights. In addition to work-
ing “to secure and to preserve Indian rights under
Indian treaties,” the Denver conference delegates
name the preservation of “Indian cultural values” as
one of their primary goals. The representatives also
call for the creation of a U.S. government commis-
sion to settle Indian land claims. (See also entries for
JUNE 13 TO 20, 1961, and for OCTOBER 2004.)

1945

John C. Collier resigns as the commissioner
of Indian affairs.
Recognizing a change in the federal government’s
goals for Indian policy, Commissioner John C.
Collier steps down from his position as head of the
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). Collier had held the
post for 12 years, what was then the longest tenure
of any commissioner (see entry for 1933). In keep-
ing with Roosevelt’s progressive policies, Collier’s
Indian Reorganization Act (see entry for JUNE 18,
1934) ended the Allotment policy, which had
stripped many tribes of their land, and encouraged
the preservation of tribal cultures.

As Collier’s years as commissioner were coming

to an end, many in government had already begun

to gravitate toward a more conservative federal In-

dian policy. Encouraged by western business leaders

seeking control over Indian lands and resources,

the post-Collier BIA will focus on assimilating in-

dividual Indians into mainstream society while

attempting to terminate the government’s financial

responsibilities to tribes.

February 24

Ira Hayes raises the American flag on the

island of Iwo Jima.

During the Battle of Iwo Jima, Marine Private First

Class Ira Hayes, a Pima (Akimel O’odham) Indian,

is one of the first American soldiers to reach the

summit of Mount Suribachi, an extinct volcano

at Iwo Jima’s southern tip. To mark the American

victory in this pivotal battle, Hayes and five other

marines raise a U.S. flag. The moment (actually a

second flag-raising soon after) is captured in a pho-

tograph by the Associated Press’s Joe Rosenthal. The

photograph will become one of the most famous

World War II hero Ira Hayes identifies himself in the

famous Associated Press photograph of U.S. soldiers

raising the American flag on the Japanese-held island

of Iwo Jima. (Princeton University Library)