In 1607 the English founded Jamestown; in 1608
the French built Quebec; and in 1609 the Spanish
established Santa Fe. Non-Indians had been arriv-
ing in North America for more than 100 years, and
by the beginning of the 17th century, as Europeans
established these and other permanent settlements,
the signs were clear that they intended to stay.
Indian reactions to these invaders in their
lands varied according to the foreigners’ aims and
behavior. Overall, the French were given the high-
est regard. They primarily came to North America
as businessmen intent on amassing fortunes in
the fur trade, in which they gave European goods
to Indians in exchange for the pelts of fur-bearing
animals, most often the beaver. The French sought
to create strong friendships with their Indian trad-
ing partners, because their livelihoods depended on
it. Traders often adopted Indian customs, particu-
larly the ritual of giving gifts to express goodwill,
and they sometimes married Indian women to
strengthen these crucial business relationships.
The Spanish incursions in the Southwest and
Southeast were far more disruptive to the Indian
groups there. Using methods of conquest pioneered
by the Spanish in Mexico, soldiers swept into Indian
villages and compelled the inhabitants to perform
labor for them. In exchange, the Spanish promised
protection from their Indian and non-Indian ene-
mies. Responding to the Spanish Crown’s insistence
on the conversion of its Indian subjects, Catholic
priests established missions among the Indians.
Groups under Spanish control generally tried
to keep the peace by accommodating—or seem-
ing to accommodate—the demands of soldiers
and missionaries. Indians such as the Pueblo, for
instance, worked for the Spanish and agreed to
become Christian converts, all the while retaining
much of their autonomy and their traditional cul-
ture and religion. Only when conditions became
intolerably oppressive did the Indians respond with
violence. The 17th century saw a series of Pueblo
revolts, the most effective being the rebellion led by
Popé in 1680, which forced the Spanish to abandon
the Pueblos’ territory for 12 years.
Despite the frequent brutality of the Spanish,
the English posed perhaps an even greater threat to
their Indian neighbors. Relatively uninterested in
the Indians’ souls or animal furs, they instead had
their eyes on tribal lands. As their population and
number of settlements grew, the English showed lit-
Natives and Newcomers
1607 TO 1775
