northern Florida are subjugated by the Span-
ish, who compel them to labor in their missions.
Just as a second wave of smallpox hits the tribe,
Spanish officials trade away supplies intended for
their Timucua laborers. Angry and desperate, the
Timucua, led by Lucas Menendez, rise up against
their oppressors. The rebels are armed with guns
given to them by the Spanish to fight the English
in the event of an invasion. The Timucua kill sev-
eral Spaniards at the San Pedro mission, but the
rebellion is quickly quashed by a Spanish retalia-
tory force. Menendez and 10 others are publicly
hanged. The Timucua are destroyed as a tribe,
as many of the rebellion’s survivors are sold into
slavery by the Spanish. Others escape and join the
Seminole tribe.
A Spanish priest murders a Hopi man for
idolatry.
In the Hopi village of Shongopovi, Spanish priest
Salvador de Guerra discovers an Indian named Juan
Cuna with a kachina doll—a figurine representing
a supernatural being. Guerra accuses Juan Cuna
of idolatry and publicly whips him in the village
plaza. The priest carries the bludgeoned Indian, by
then close to death, into the church at Shongopovi,
where Guerra covers him with turpentine and sets
him on fire. His body in flames, Juan Cuna rushes
from the church, with Guerra in pursuit. The
priest mounts a horse, knocks over the Indian, and
tramples his burning body until he dies. A Hopi
delegation reports the grisly event to Santa Fe au-
thorities, who recall Guerra to the Spanish colonial
capital.
1656Massachusetts appoints a superintendent of
Indian affairs.
The Massachusetts legislature establishes the office
of superintendent of Indian affairs, the first such
post created by the English. Appointed as the first
superintendent, Daniel Gookin is responsible for se-
lecting Native leaders, distributing gifts to friendly
Indians, encouraging Indians to attend church, and
“promoting and practicing morality, civility, indus-
try, and diligence.”Powhatan warriors join the English in
fighting hostile Indians.
The English convince two Powhatan tribes, the
Pamunkey and Chickahominy, to help them fight
the Iroquois, who are moving into Virginia from
the north. During the conflict, Totopotomoy, the
husband of Pamunkey leader Cockacoeske (see
entry for 1676), and most of his men are killed. The
Indian-English force is defeated, largely because of
the incompetence of the English commander.1659Dutch soldiers murder Esopus leaders at a
peace council.
Intent on driving Dutch settlers out of their lands,
the Esopus Indians launch attacks on their farms
and settlements, including the town of Wiltwyck.
A militia organized by Governor Peter Stuyves-
ant pressures Esopus leaders to meet in council at
Wiltwyck to negotiate a peace. While the Esopus
delegates are asleep, the soldiers murder them. In
retaliation, the Esopus capture eight Dutchmen
and burn them alive.1660The Dutch take Indian children as hostages.
To force Indians to comply with Dutch demands,
Governor Peter Stuyvesant inaugurates a pol-
icy of taking hostage several children from area
tribes. Many tribes, weakened by warfare with the
Dutch, have no choice but to offer them up. The
Esopus, however, resist. They have harbored an
especially strong hatred and distrust of the Dutch
since their leaders were murdered at peace coun-
cil by Dutch soldiers the year before (see entry
for 1659). When the Esopus refuse to give them