152 Chapter 5 The Federalist Era: Nationalism Triumphant
unmentioned power to the states,
much of the opposition disap-
peared. Sam Adams ended up
voting for the Constitution in the
Massachusetts convention after
the additions had been promised.
No one knows exactly how
public opinion divided on the
question of ratification. The
Federalists were usually able to
create an impression of strength
far beyond their numbers and to
overwhelm doubters with the
mass of their arguments. They
excelled in political organization
and in persuasiveness. James
Madison, for example, demol-
ished the thesis that a centralized
republican government could not
function efficiently in a large
country. In rule by the majority
lay protection against the “cabals”
of special interest groups.
Moreover, the management of national affairs would
surely attract leaders of greater ability and sounder char-
acter to public service than the handling of petty local
concerns ever could in a decentralized system.
The Constitution met with remarkably little oppo-
sition in most of the state ratifying conventions, con-
sidering the importance of the changes it instituted.
Delaware acted first, ratifying unanimously on
December 7, 1787. Pennsylvania followed a few days
later, voting for the document by a 2 to 1 majority.
New Jersey approved it unanimously on December 18,
as did Georgia on January 2, 1788. A week later
Connecticut fell in line, 128 to 40.
The Massachusetts convention provided the first
close contest. Early in February, after an extensive
debate, the delegates ratified by a vote of 187 to 168.
In April, Maryland accepted the Constitution by
nearly 6 to 1, and in May, South Carolina approved it,
149 to 73. New Hampshire came along on June 21,
voting 57 to 47 for the Constitution. This was the
ninth state, making the Constitution legally operative.
Before the news from New Hampshire had
spread throughout the country, the Virginia conven-
tion debated the issue. Virginia, the largest state and
the home of so many prestigious figures, was
absolutely essential if the Constitution was to suc-
ceed. With unquestioned patriots like Richard Henry
Lee and Patrick Henry opposed, the result was not
easy to predict. But when the vote came on June 25,
Virginia ratified, eighty-nine to seventy-nine. Aside
from Rhode Island, this left only New York and
North Carolina outside the Union.when he wrote that “the great body of independent
men who saw the necessity of an energetic govern-
ment” swung the balance in favor of the Constitution.
At the time of the ratification debate, the country
was large and sparsely settled, communication was
primitive, and the central government did not influ-
ence the lives of most people to any great degree.
Many persons, including some who had been in the
forefront of the struggle for independence, believed
that a centralized republican system would not work in
a country so large and with so many varied interests as
the United States. Patrick Henry considered the
Constitution “horribly frightful.” It “squints toward
monarchy,” he added. That Congress could pass all
laws “necessary and proper” to carry out the functions
assigned it and legislate for the “general welfare” of
the country seemed alarmingly all-inclusive. The first
sentence of the Constitution, beginning “We the peo-
ple of the United States” rather than “We the states,”
convinced many that the document represented cen-
tralization run wild. Another old revolutionary who
expressed doubts was Samuel Adams, who remarked,
“As I enter the Building I stumble at the Threshold.”
Very little of the opposition to the Constitution
grew out of economic issues. Most people wanted the
national debt paid off; nearly everyone opposed an
unstable currency; most favored uniform trade policies;
most were ready to give the new government a chance
if they could be convinced that it would not destroy the
states. When backers agreed to add amendments guar-
anteeing the civil liberties of the people against chal-
lenge by the national government and reserving all
New Yorkers honor Hamilton during a parade marking ratification of the Constitution. That
Hamilton stood on a ship was fitting, not only because he sought to strengthen the federal “ship of
state,” but also because New York merchants were among his staunchest backers.