The American Nation A History of the United States, Combined Volume (14th Edition)

442 Chapter 16 The Conquest of the West

John Atkins explained. “Character, habits, and

antecedents cannot be changed by enactment.”

The Dawes Act had disastrous results in the

long run. It assumed that Indians could be trans-

formed into small agricultural capitalists by an

act of Congress. It shattered what was left of the

Indians’ culture without enabling them to adapt

to white ways. Moreover, unscrupulous white

men systematically tricked many Indians into

leasing their allotments for a pittance, and local

authorities often taxed Indian lands at excessive

rates. In 1934, after about 86 million of the

138 million acres assigned under the Dawes Act

had passed into white hands, the government

returned to a policy of encouraging tribal owner-

ship of Indian lands.

The story of U.S.-Indian relations in the

nineteenth century concludes, predictably, with

a sad coda. In 1890 the Teton Sioux, suffering

from cold and hunger, took heart from the

words of Wovoka, a prophet, who had said that

the whites would disappear if the Sioux per-

formed their “ghost dance” rituals. When the

Ghost Dance movement spread, federal military

authorities resolved to stamp it out. On

December 14 they attempted to arrest Chief

Sitting Bull, a legendary Sioux warrior. When he

resisted, shots rang out and Sitting Bull was

killed. His people left the reservation at Pine

Ridge and fled into the Badlands. The soldiers

pursued them and the Indians surrendered. As

they were being disarmed, however, a scuffle

broke out and the troops opened fire. Some

An ad for Indian land, offered for sale by the U.S. Department of the Interior.
In 1889 alone, white settlers claimed 2 million acres of Indian Territory. By
1892, they had acquired some 30 million acres. During the 1890s, the white
population of Oklahoma Territory—as it was called in 1890—increased from
60,000 to 400,000.

Table 16.1 Key Federal Policies Affecting Indians

Policy Year Provisions Consequences

Indian Removal Bill^1830 Indians surrender land east of Mississippi

to settle in Oklahoma and elsewhere

Forcible removal of Indians from South

Treaty of Fort Laramie 1851 Indian tribes establish tribal boundaries

over shared hunting grounds and ensure

safe passage of westward-bound settlers

through Indian territory

Discourages concerted action among

Indian tribes; settlers encroach on

Indian lands

Railroad land grants 1850–1871 Gives railroads lands to lay track through-

out the West

Promotes settlement and further encroach-

ment; hastens demise of buffalo

Treaty of Fort Laramie 1868 Concentrates Indians in reservations in

the Dakotas and Oklahoma

Dissident Indians commence open war-

fare against U.S. government

Dawes Severalty Act 1887 Breaks Indian lands into small plots for

Indian families or sale to whites

Weakens tribal authority; causes loss of

Indian land

Indian Reorganization Act 1934 Rescinds Dawes Increases tribal authority

Indian Gaming

Regulatory Act

1988 Allows tribes to run federally regulated

casinos and gambling operations

Generates huge revenue for a handful of

eastern tribes, and little for the rest