The American Nation A History of the United States, Combined Volume (14th Edition)

606 Chapter 22 From Isolation to Empire

and smaller but significant investments were made in
the Dominican Republic and in Haiti. In Central
America the United Fruit Company accumulated
large holdings in banana plantations, railroads, and
other ventures. Other firms plunged heavily into
Mexico’s rich mineral resources.

Imperialism without Colonies

The United States deserves fair marks for effort in its
foreign relations following the Spanish-American
War, barely passable marks for performance, and fail-
ing marks for the results. If one defines imperialism
narrowly as a policy of occupying and governing for-
eign lands, American imperialism lasted for an
extremely short time. With trivial exceptions, all the
American colonies—Hawaii, the Philippines, Guam,
Puerto Rico, the Guantanamo base, and the Canal
Zone—were obtained between 1898 and 1903. In
retrospect it seems clear that the urge to own colonies
was only fleeting; the legitimate questions raised by

the anti-imperialists and the headaches connected

with the management of overseas possessions soon

produced a change of policy.

The objections of protectionists to the lowering

of tariff barriers, the shock of the Philippine insurrec-

tion, and a growing conviction that the costs of colo-

nial administration outweighed the profits affected

American thinking. Hay’s Open Door notes (which

anti-imperialists praised highly) marked the begin-

ning of the retreat from imperialism as thus defined,

while the Roosevelt Corollary and dollar diplomacy

signaled the consolidation of a new policy. Elihu

Root summarized this policy as it applied to the

Caribbean nations (and by implication to the rest of

the underdeveloped world) in 1905: “We do not

want to take them for ourselves. We do not want any

foreign nations to take them for themselves. We want

to help them.”

Yet imperialism can be given a broader definition.

Although the United States did not seek colonies, it

pursued a course that promoted American economic

Table 22.1 Path to Empire, 1885–1901

Josiah Strong,Our Country 1885 Applied social Darwinism—“survival of the fittest”—to jus-

tify American expansion

A. T. Mahan,The Influence of Seapower

upon History

1890 Endorsed naval power to ensure prosperity and

national security

United States helped sugar planters depose

Queen Liliuokalani

1893 Major step toward annexation of Hawaii

United States intervened in British dispute with

Venezuela over land claims

1895 Reaffirmed the Monroe Doctrine claim to American

supervision of Latin America

USSMaineexploded in Havana harbor 1898 Generated public pressure for war against Spain

Defeat of Spain 1898 Opened former Spanish colonies to U.S. annexation and

economic penetration

U.S. annexation of Philippines 1899 United States became formal empire

“Open Door” Policy 1899 United States asserted trading rights in China

Roosevelt intervened on behalf of Panamanian

independence

1903 Advanced expansive rights in Central America

Roosevelt Corollary 1904 Asserted U.S. right to military intervention in Latin America

Taft’s Dollar Diplomacy 1909–1913 Encouraged U.S. government-supported investment abroad

Panama Canal opened 1914 Allowed U.S. warships to travel swiftly between Atlantic

and Pacific