262 UNIT 2 COLONIAL MESOAMERICA
Substantial salaries as well as access to their own family networks through intermar-
riage. In this manner, upwardly mobile mestizo army officers became economically,
politically, and socially allied with the creole elite. The local expression of caudillowas
the cacique,a small-scale version of the nondemocratic, authoritarian ruler at the com-
munity level (not to be confused with the native elite class of the Colonial period,
also known as caciques).
The cacique system of personalistic local authority characterized both mestizo
and Indian communities, and often, in the latter case, involved the descendants of
the old Indian elite families who had enjoyed, during the Colonial period, privileges
and exemptions from the tribute system in exchange for serving as intermediaries,
labor provisioners, and tribute collectors for the Crown. As these small-scale strong-
man fiefdoms developed in the region, it was often the case (as it was at the regional
and national levels with the system of caudillos) that reciprocity greased the system
through favors from the caciques such as loans, legal assistance, marriage arrange-
ments, jobs, and scriptorial services.
Caudillos and caciques were also involved in ritual kinship links with their sub-
alterns through the system of compadrazgo,whereby the caudillo or cacique would
become godparent, patron, and protector of the client’s child in the ritual of bap-
tism. The client, in turn, owed absolute loyalty to his patron in all matters pertain-
ing to defending his privileges and right to absolute political authority in local affairs.
This neocolonial mode of local political authority, while often informal, nevertheless
proved to be an effective way of guaranteeing local stability in the ebb and flow of na-
tional politics.Positivism and Early Attempts at Development
The intellectual universe of the independence movement and the subsequent for-
mulation of national agendas and priorities were strongly influenced by French pos-
itivism. It was a world view and policy template that emphasized the ideal of inevitable
progress and modernization through science and reason. Following closely the ideals
of general social evolution, the models to be emulated were European. Latin Amer-
ica was “behind” in the world hierarchy of power, progress, and prosperity and felt
obliged to “catch up.” These ideals, as interpreted by creoles in Mexico and Central
America, could best be achieved through economic development of their backward
regions. Thus, capitalist development, with relatively few regulatory constraints, be-
came the policy focus of most nineteenth-century governments of the region, both
liberal and conservative. Whatever brought economic growth, urban development,
increased production for export markets, and “civilization” was good. This outlook
meant that education and expanded social inclusion for skilled technicians were de-
sirable, but not so much so as to keep “progress” from favoring the privileges of the
old creole elite.
Although the old creole elite did not lose out on the direct and indirect bene-
fits of the fever for economic development and modernization, the mestizo and In-
dian poor turned out to be the big losers. Increasingly, the power structure totally
excluded these elements of the population, even though they comprised an over-