Languages and Culture (^151)
• A range of activities
• Home on the range^10
The word’s context helps you discern the meaning. As you plan language for
your speech, choose the correct word for the correct context to denote your intended
meaning. Consult a dictionary or thesaurus if you are unsure.
Increasing your vocabulary and discriminating among shades of meaning between
words are valuable skills, because a larger vocabulary enables you to communicate your
thoughts more precisely. Check your vocabulary prowess by searching the Internet for
the list of 100 words that every high school graduate should know. (It’s challenging!)
Jargon denotes specialized, technical language that serves special groups (doctors,
lawyers), interests (feminism, education), activities (football, gardening), and so on. For
example, football has specialized meanings for drive, down, and safety. When everyone
in your audience knows the meaning of the jargon, it’s appropriate to use it. However,
when you’re communicating with nonspecialists, you should define and clarify technical
terms to include all your listeners.
Connotative Meanings
Connotative meanings are the emotional overtones the words carry. That is, words
represent feelings and associations related to the ideas they denote. For instance,
chocolate is not just a food produced from cacao seeds (denotative meaning); it can
connote romance or dietary temptation, depending on the individual. Because language
is often emotionally charged, people sometimes choose negatively loaded words to
demean persons or ideas, or they substitute neutral or positive terms to talk about
unpopular ideas.
Epithets are words or phrases, often with negative connotations, that describe
some quality of a person or a group. For example, politicians use terms such as
flip-flopper or corporate welfare because opinion polls show that voters respond neg-
atively to those terms. Words like Bible-thumper, tree hugger, or nerd are negative
epithets used to frame perceptions about these groups. Calling anti-abortion advocates
anti-choice creates a negative image, whereas the group’s self-chosen title, pro-life, has
positive connotations.
Groups or individuals targeted with an epithet sometimes try to lessen the
negative effect by accepting and using the term themselves. For example, opponents
of the Affordable Care Act labeled it Obamacare, hoping to create negative associations.
However, President Obama confronted this term directly, “I have no problem with
people saying ‘Obama cares.’ I do care.”^11
Euphemisms, in contrast, substitute an agreeable or inoffensive term for a more
embarrassing, unpleasant, or offensive word. We commonly use them for things we
hesitate to speak about such as bodily functions (nature is calling), religion (the Man
Upstairs), death (kick the bucket), or weight (big-boned). Euphemisms also mask unpleasant
situations such as corporate layoffs. It’s supposedly easier to be given a career change
opportunity or be outplaced rather than fired.
Public speakers, especially politicians, often use euphemisms for controversial
actions, ideas, and policies. Planned tax increases become membership fees or revenue
enhancements. Enhanced interrogation techniques is military-speak for torture. Similarly,
shell shock (World War I) became combat fatigue (World War II), which became
post-traumatic stress syndrome (Vietnam War). Each subsequent term further removes the
condition from its cause.^12 Be alert for connotative language. By carefully chosen words,
speakers hope to create a desired spin or interpretation. (Learn more about this subject
by searching the Internet for the word euphemisms or doublespeak.)
In summary, languages are systems of symbols—words that denote or stand for
ideas and evoke feelings or connotative meanings that differ from person to person.jargon a specialized,
technical vocabulary that
serves the interests and
activities of a particular
groupconnotative meanings
emotional overtones, related
feelings, and associations
that cluster around a wordepithet word or phrase
with a powerful negative
connotation, used to describe
some quality of a person or
groupeuphemism word or phrase
that substitutes an inoffen-
sive term for a potentially
offensive, embarrassing, or
unpleasant thing• Cultural and gender diversity: Across many cultures, women use more polite and
precise forms of speech than men do. In some languages, such as Japanese,
women and men use different words for some of the same objects.^3In the study of rhetoric, language falls within the canon of style, which is the
focus of this chapter. First, it looks at ways our vocabularies both reveal and express
cultural assumptions. Next, it provides tips for effective language choices in public
speeches. Finally, it discusses language issues in linguistically diverse settings.Languages and Culture
Languages are systems of verbal symbols that members of a speech community use
to share ideas. Some symbols are visual; for instance, a country’s flag stands for that
country. But more commonly we use verbal symbols or words to express cultural ideas.
Co-cultures often use both the larger culture’s vocabulary and terminology that is
unique to their group.Words and Meaning
Think of words as the names we give our “cultural memories.” They serve as “markers
of cultural attention”^4 or^ of^ shared^ experiences^ we^ consider^ significant^ enough^ to^ name.^
The theorist Kenneth Burke explains that when we learn to
“name,” we assume a perspective on the world^5 because^ our^
labels form our social realities.
For example, English has many time-related words such as
hours, minutes, milliseconds, tomorrow, and eternity; in contrast, the
Hopi language has no word that means later.^6 This^ suggests^ that^
English-speaking cultures are much more time conscious than
Hopi culture.
Cultural changes bring about linguistic changes. The Oxford
English Dictionary updates four times a year and recently added
or revised 900 words including bestie and bookaholic.^7 In^ the^ last^
few decades gridlock, serial killer, microchip, and junk food reflected
cultural changes. In basketball, slam dunk and air ball became
common terms.^8 When^ your^ grandparents^ were^ growing^ up,^
microchips or slam dunks or junk food didn’t exist or weren’t
important enough to name.^9 Languages^ also^ change^ over^ time,^
as you notice every time you read a Shakespearean play. Without
footnotes, the archaic words are difficult to understand.Denotative Meanings
The denotative meaning—the meaning you find in a
dictionary—is what the word names or identifies. Ambiguous
words, by definition, have more than one meaning, For instance,
the word range could denote many things:
• A vocal range
• A mountain range
• A shooting range
• An electric range for cookingRead, highlight, and take
notes online.
language verbal code
consisting of symbols that
a speech community uses
for communication
word verbal symbol that
stands for or represents
an idea
denotative meaning what a
word names or identifiesambiguous words identify
more than one object or idea;
its meaning depends on the
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