222 CHAPTER 16^ Foundations of Persuasion
Reasoning by Analogy: Figurative and Literal
Chapter 8 defines an analogy as a comparison between one item that is unknown or
less familiar and something already familiar to the audience. You can reason by using
figurative (metaphor) or literal (parallel case) analogies.Figurative Analogies (Metaphors)
Reasoning by metaphor figuratively compares two things that are generally different
but share a recognizable similarity. This type of reasoning is fundamental and universal,
practiced by cultures globally and historically,^25 and typical of African and African
American speakers.^26 Aristotle associated metaphor with mental brilliance, as seen in
this quotation from Poetics.
[T]he greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor. It is the one thing that
cannot be learnt from others, and it is also a sign of genius, since a good metaphor
implies an intuitive perception of the similarity in dissimilars.^27
Here are some examples of metaphors taken from speeches given by professionals.
What images do they evoke in you?
• Good news is music to our ears; insecurity causes us to play it by ear; when we are
getting along, we are in harmony or in tune with one another.^28
• Graduation speakers are like mixed seasonal vegetables. When you go to a restau-
rant, you expect them on your plate. But they’re not the reason you went there
and they’re not what you remember about the meal. So I stand before you today,
like some forgettable but hopefully tasty mix of broccoli, snow peas, and summer
squash.^29
• The presidency is the most visible thread that runs through the tapestry of the
American government.^30
Metaphors are inherently dialogical because they require your listeners to
participate actively and make sensible connections between the two things you compare.
In addition, the images inherent in metaphors have emotional overtones. Contrast your
feelings about roadblocks or open doors, a harvest of justice or the moneyed scales of justice; a
turkey of a deal or a gem of a deal.
Our metaphors guide our actions. For example, what is the role of your college
or university in your community? Is it a good neighbor, a partner, a beacon of light?
Your metaphor affects how you engage the community. If you choose “partner,” your
involvement is arguably different than if you think of yourselves as a “beacon of light.”Literal Analogies (Parallel Cases)
Whereas metaphors highlight similarities between two different things, reasoning by
parallel case or literal analogy points out likenesses between two similar things. We
often use this type of reasoning to formulate policies by asking what another person
or group decided to do when faced with a problem similar to our own. Here are some
examples.
• How should your campus deal with sexual assaults? Look at case studies of schools
similar to yours that instituted an effective program, then infer whether that campus’s
solution might or might not work for yours.
• How should a business prevent vandalism? Look at prevention strategies installed by
similar businesses in similar locations.
In summary, literal analogies use actual cases based on real experiences to formulate
policies and make predictions about the future. That is, we predict that what happened
in a known case will happen in a similar case that we project.analogy comparison of one
item that’s less familiar or
unknown to something
concrete and familiar
reasoning by metaphor
comparing two things
that are generally different
but share a recognizable
similarity
parallel case or literal
analogy comparing like-
nesses between two similar
things; arguing that what
happened in a known case
will likely happen in a similar
case
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