Public Speaking

Use Logos or Rational Proofs (^227)
Fallacious arguments fail to provide evidence or present faulty evidence for the
claim. Fallacies also attack the messenger instead of countering the message itself.
Fallacies of analogy, causation, induction, and false choice are common. Learning to
recognize fallacies will help you think more critically about the arguments you make
and those you hear every day.
In conclusion, other cultures may not use Aristotle’s terminology to name the proofs
of ethos, pathos, and logos, but that does not mean they don’t exist in some form. Across
the globe, speakers follow cultural ideas about what makes a speaker trustworthy, and
they address their listeners’ emotional and rational responses, as Diversity in Practice:
Cultural Reasoning Preferences explains.
Type of Fallacy Example
Unsupported assertion Offering a claim without any evidence (“I deserved an A in class; why did you give
me a C?”)
Ad populum or bandwagon Literally, “to the people”—an appeal to popular reason instead of offering evidence
(“We all agree ...” or “Everyone says ...”)
Ad hominem (personal attack) Literally, “against the person”—an attack against the source, not the evidence or
reasoning (“Of course, a liberal would think that way.”)
False analogy Comparing two things that are not similar enough to warrant the comparison
(Although thousands of websites use the analogy, “Animal Auschwitz,” mistreatment
of animals, is not similar to the Nazis’ treatment of their enemies.)
Faulty generalization Inductive fallacy that extends the conclusion further than the evidence warrants
(“I hate that politician; everyone in his political party is corrupt.”)
Slippery slope Stating, without proof, that if one step is taken, a snowball or domino effect will
cause other negative results (“If you take away any gun rights, pretty soon hunters
won’t even be able to keep their shotguns.”)
Post hoc (ergo propter hoc) Fallacy of causation; literally, “after this, therefore because of this”—assumes that,
because one thing follows another, the first caused the second (“I took my lucky
rabbit’s foot to the test with me, and I passed with flying colors.”)
False dichotomy Stating an issue as an either–or choice, overlooking other reasonable possibilities
(“Either you get a college degree or end up in a low-paying job.”)
unsupported assertion
unsupported claim
ad populum an appeal to
popular opinion
ad hominem an attack on
the messenger rather than
the message
false analogy comparing
two things too dissimilar to
warrant the conclusion drawn
faulty generalization a
fallacy of induction; general-
izing too broadly, given the
evidence
slippery slope a fallacy of
causation; saying one small
thing will lead to larger things
without offering proof
Table 16.1

Common Reasoning Fallacies
Diversity
in praCtiCe
Cultural reasoning preferences
Culture influences our reasoning resources in a number of ways that can easily
lead to misunderstandings between cultural groups.^44
• Topics considered appropriate to debate vary across cultures. Chapter 1
pointed out that taboo topics vary across cultures. Some groups, for instance,
would not bring up such issues as gay rights, day care, or euthanasia. Openly
speaking about sex is unthinkable in some places.
(continued)
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