238 CHAPTER 17^ Persuasive Speaking
Status quo is a Latin phrase that means the existing state of affairs, and arguments
against the status quo are arguments for change. When you argue against the status quo,
the burden of proof is your responsibility because, as the cultural saying puts it, “If it
ain’t broke, don’t fix it.” Consequently, it’s up to you to prove that there is a significant
problem and that it can and should be fixed by the solution you propose. Examples
include the following:
Congress should adopt a flat tax system.
Our campus should create a grief support system.
Some policy claims aim at personal behaviors. Here, your goal is to have your
audience change their actions, as these examples illustrate:
Every student should get involved in a civic engagement project.
Students should cut up their credit cards.
In contrast, arguments supporting the status quo are in favor of the current
situation and against change. These claims have presumption, meaning that the status
quo is assumed to be workable. (In courts of law, presumption of innocence lies with
the defendant. The prosecution must prove guilt beyond a reasonable doubt.) Here are
some claims supporting the status quo:
The university should not raise tuition.
You should stay in school instead of dropping out.
Often people agree that there is a problem, and they may even agree on its causes.
However, they argue over solutions. For example, educational reformers may agree that
education needs improvement, and they may similarly argue against the status quo, but
their solutions become debatable. Some argue for smaller classes. Others advocate for
alternative schools; still others think vouchers are the way to solve specific problems.
Although we separate claims of fact, value, and policy for analysis, in reality persua-
sive speeches commonly include a combination of claims. Effective speakers skillfully
blend fact, value, and policy claims in order to successfully persuade an audience.Use Toulmin’s Model of Reasoning
Some people say they hate to argue because they think of arguments as word fights.
However, as Chapter 16 pointed out, in rhetoric, an argument provides a set of reasons
in support of a disputed idea or action. Put another way, an argument is “an intentional,
purposeful activity involving reason and judgment”^8 that you create to explain your
beliefs and conclusions to people who don’t initially accept them.^9 Professor Stephen
Toulmin^10 diagrammed a six-element linear model—Toulmin’s Model of Reasoning—
shown in Figure 17.1, that depicts a type of reasoning common in the United States.
Claims, as noted earlier, are the debatable points or proposals, conclusions, or gen-
eralizations that some people won’t accept without some sort of evidence or backing.
Qualifiers are words and phrases that limit or narrow the scope of the claim.
Instead of saying always or never, substitute limiting phrases such as in most cases, in males
between the ages of 7 and 9, usually, and among women with a college degree.
Grounds, data, or evidence are materials used to support your claims as described
in Chapter 8. Use facts, examples, statistics, and so on from a variety of reliable sources,
and arrange the data in the order your listeners will find most reasonable or most
forceful.^11 Without sufficient and credible grounds, your claims are unsupported
assertions.status quo Latin phrase that
means “the existing state of
affairs”
burden of proof responsibil-
ity of the speaker who argues
against the status quo to
make the case for change
presumption assumption
that change is not necessary
until proven otherwise
argument intentional,
purposeful, rational activity
created to explain disputed
beliefs and conclusions
Toulmin’s Model of
reasoning a linear model
designed to show six ele-
ments of reasoning common
in the United States
qualifiers word or phrase
that limits the scope of the
claim
grounds, data, or evidence
supporting material for
claims
unsupported assertion
unsupported claim
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