Speaking Freely 4.2 51
among medical professionals. Advertising by some attorneys has incensed those
who believe that it has resulted in an overall increase in frivolous litigation that
is tarnishing the profession. And in the political arena, debates about reforms of
social programs, fiscal responsibility, and the collection of cell phone data by the
federal government all hinge on ethical issues.
Although you are undoubtedly familiar with many ethical issues, you may
have given less thought to ethics in public speaking. The National Communica-
tion Association’s Credo for Communication Ethics emphasizes the fundamen-
tal nature and far-reaching impact of ethical communication:
Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision
making, and the development of relationships and communities within
and across contexts, cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical
communication enhances human worth and dignity by fostering truth-
fulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self
and others.^2
Ethical considerations should guide every step of the public-speaking proc-
ess. As you determine the goal of your speech, outline your arguments, and se-
lect your evidence, think about the beliefs, values, and morals of your audience
as well as your own. Ethical public speaking is inherently audience-centered,
always taking into account the needs and rights of the listeners.
Speaking ethically is also central to being perceived by your audience as a
credible speaker. Credibility is a speaker’s believability. A credible speaker is
one whom an audience perceives to be competent, knowledgeable, dynamic,
and trustworthy.
To achieve the last of these four factors—trustworthiness—you as a speaker
must consistently adhere to ethical principles. In fact, the Greek rhetorician Aristotle
used the term ethos—the root word of ethic and ethical—to refer to a speaker’s
credibility. Quintilian, a Roman teacher of public speaking, believed that an ef-
fective public speaker also should be a person of good character, a “good person
speaking well.”
We examine credibility in more detail in Chapter 6, where we discuss ana-
lyzing your audience’s attitudes toward you; in Chapter 10, where we discuss
establishing your credibility in your speech introduction; and in Chapters 16
and 17, where we discuss the role of credibility in persuading an audience.
Speaking Freely
4.2 Explain how free speech has been both challenged and defended
throughout U.S. history.
In May 2013, a heckler interrupted President Barack Obama three times while he
was delivering a speech at the National Defense University in Washington, D.C.
Obama responded by calmly reminding the woman that the right to free speech
4.2