The Dynamics of Fascism 1007the north, ship owners and iron and mining magnates, as well as wealthy
landowners, provided funds for Mussolini’s fascists. Uniformed squads
of fascists wearing black shirts intervened on behalf of big landowners
and businessmen, attacking Socialists, Communists, and union members.
Laborers and sharecroppers fought back against the fascists, but had little
chance because the landowners supplied the squadri with weapons. The left
was divided and hesitant.
Mussolini, now boasting a private army and a sizable claque, or “applause
squad,” of paid supporters, praised the “bath of blood” that swept parts of
Italy. He reveled in rumors of a coup d’etat associated with his name, crank
ing out violent articles denouncing parliamentary government.
In 1921, the Liberals, hoping to find a parliamentary mandate to impose
order, offered the fascists qualified support and accepted them as electoral
allies. Mussolini and several dozen other fascists were elected to the Italian
Parliament. The fascist leader now had an ideal soapbox for his flamboyant
oratory, as well as immunity from prosecution. The Liberal government of
Giovanni Giolitti (see Chapter 17) resigned, succeeded by another coalition
government.
The fascists were now a powerful political movement with prominent
allies, money, newspapers, and hundreds of thousands of party members.
Fascist thugs had carved out territories in which their word was law. They
disrupted local political life, shattering the organization and support for
the traditional parties. Mussolini, who took the title of the Duce, or “the
leader,” presented himself as a defender of law and order, blaming Social
ists and the newly formed Communist Party for the turmoil for which the
fascists were largely responsible. Fascists enjoyed the tacit support of
many state and police officials, and fascist violence went unpunished.
For Mussolini, fascism was an ideology of violent confrontation, a means
of winning and maintaining political power, more than a coherent doctrine
of political philosophy. Italian fascists, as with their counterparts who would
soon emerge elsewhere, advocated a strong, virulently nationalist, milita
rized state. Italy would fulfill its “historic destiny” by transforming the
Mediterranean into “a Roman lake.”
In October 1922, Mussolini made his move. He pressured indecisive
King Victor Emmanuel III (ruled 1900-1946), a shy man who loved to
hunt, wear military uniforms, and collect coins, to name him and several
other fascists to cabinet posts. The king remained out of Rome for weeks at
a time as the crisis built, hoping that it would simply go away. Even as he
planned a coup d’etat, Mussolini charmed members of the royal family. He
told 40,000 fascists in Naples, “Either we are allowed to govern, or we will
seize power by marching on Rome.” The prime minister asked the king to
declare martial law and to use the army to restore order by suppressing
the fascists, who had seized control of several towns.
The king declared a state of emergency and then changed his mind even
as thousands of black-shirted fascists surged toward Rome on the night of