118 • 8 ISLAMIC CIVILIZATIONwith the conviction that the deceased would soon be with God. Men also
used to meet in mosques, bazaars, public baths, and restaurants. Women
often saw their friends at the women's baths, at the public well where they
drew their water, or at the stream where they did their laundry. Compared
with our society, early Muslims had less freedom and privacy but more
security and less loneliness.
Food, Clothing, and Shelter
The foods early Muslims ate, the clothes they wore, and the houses in
which they lived varied according to their economic condition, locality, and
the era in question, so it is hard to generalize about how they met their ba¬
sic needs. Wheat was the chief cereal grain. It was usually ground at a mill,
kneaded at home, and baked in small flat loaves in large communal or
commercial ovens. Bulgur or parched wheat was used in cooking, especially
in Syria and Palestine. Bedouins ate wheat gruel or porridge. Rice was quite
rare; corn and potatoes were unknown. Many fruits and vegetables were
eaten fresh; others were dried, pickled in vinegar, or preserved in sugar.
Milk from sheep, goats, camels, water buffaloes, and cows was turned into
cheese, butter (clarified for use in cooking), and yogurt. The meat Muslims
ate most often was lamb or mutton, commonly roasted, baked, or stewed.
Various animal organs not highly prized by Westerners, such as eyes,
brains, hearts, and testicles, were considered delicacies. Pork was forbidden
to Muslims, as were fermented beverages. Lax Muslims drank wine made
from grapes and other fruits, beer, and araq (fermented liquor from date
palm sap, molasses, or rice). The observant majority drank fruit juices in
season, sherbet (originally snow mixed with rose water or fruit syrup), and
diluted yogurt. Coffee and tea did not come into widespread use until the
seventeenth century. Middle Eastern food was moderately spiced, usually
with salt, pepper, olive oil, and lemon juice. Saffron was used for its yellow
coloring more than for its flavor, because Muslim cooks liked to enhance
the appearance of their dishes. Honey served as a sweetener, but sugar cul¬
tivation gradually spread through the Muslim world from India.
Clothing had to be both modest and durable. Linen or cotton clothes
were worn in hot weather and woolen ones in the winter—or throughout
the year by some mystics and nomads. Loose-fitting robes were preferred
to trousers, except by horseback riders, who wore baggy pants. Both sexes
shunned clothing that might reveal their bodily contours to strangers.
Early Muslim men covered their heads in all formal situations, with either
turbans or various types of brimless caps. Different colored turbans served