398 • 20 THE GULF WAR AND THE PEACE PROCESSin Madrid and Washington, and secret ones in Oslo and other cities. Israel
broke an ancient taboo when it talked with the PLO. A laborious peace
process began between the two sides, but neither side was willing to offer
what would most allay the other's fears. Threats of Arab violence and an¬
nihilation still haunted the Israelis, and the reality of Israel's domination
and reprisals hobbled the Palestinians who openly defied Israel's soldiers.
Turkey tried to join the European Union, but it could not meet Western
standards of respect for human rights when faced with a Kurdish rebellion
in its southeastern provinces. Iran spoke of exporting Islamic principles to
the rest of the world, but its citizens twice elected a president whose poli¬
cies would moderate its revolution at home to rebuild its own society.
The period from 1990 to 2001 was one of wars, power struggles between
and within Middle Eastern countries, acts of terrorism (variously de¬
fined), and the mirage of peace between Israel and the Palestinians. It was
a frustrating time for all.
THE GULF CRISISA geological fact created a historical anomaly. Petroleum and natural gas
abound in the arid lands surrounding the Persian Gulf where, until the
1960s, the population was sparse, mainly nomadic, and ignored by the
outside world. Most of these lands remained under tribal shaykhs and
amirs while army officers elsewhere in the Middle East were replacing
monarchies with republics. During the middle third of the twentieth cen¬
tury, a motley assortment of states emerged. These ranged from Saudi Ara¬
bia, united by Ibn Saud and enriched by oil discoveries far beyond
anything he or his subjects could ever have imagined, to such minuscule
emirates as Fujaira, known best for its postage stamps, and Bahrain, a fad¬
ing oil power with well-developed banking and tourist facilities. We call
every country a "nation," but do principalities like Qatar and Dubai owe
their existence to the political loyalties of their citizens? The combination
of two well-armed and populous countries possessing abundant oil re¬
serves, Iran and Iraq, with many tiny states that also had oil but no means
of self-defense was dangerous. The danger receded during the 1980-1988
Iran-Iraq War, but the potential for conflict resurfaced once the war ended.
Iraq's Complaints and Claims
Iraq suffers psychological complexes about being second in the Arab
world. Egypt has more influential universities, publishing houses, news-