40 China in World History
During the era of division, China was also greatly transformed in
terms of art, culture, and religion. When the Han dynasty collapsed, so
did the faith that many scholars and offi cials had had in the Confucian
doctrines that justifi ed and rationalized the Han order. As Confucianism
appeared incapable of sustaining order, many people naturally began to
turn to other philosophies and religions.
By the end of the Han, Daoism had been transformed in some
areas into a mass religion, largely made up of peasants led by faith
healers who promised that the destruction of the Han dynasty would
usher in a golden age of peace and prosperity under Daoist leadership.
One such Daoist visionary, the leader of the Yellow Turban rebellion,
inspired 360,000 of his followers to rise up against the Han in 184, but
this movement was quickly wiped out by Han forces. Another Daoist
sect, the Celestial Masters, fl ourished for almost a century in south-
west China and avoided suppression by dispersing into remote areas,
retreating from political and military battles, and concentrating on their
religious practices of warding off demons and illnesses. The Celestial
Masters sect has survived as a major branch of the Daoist religion down
to the present day. It maintains a popular following, especially in Tai-
wan, and practices rituals for burial and for the living to facilitate cos-
mic harmony, purifi cation, and healing.
In intellectual circles, many scholars and offi cials began to question
the state-sponsored Confucian doctrines of the Han and to explore anew
the old Daoist teachings of the Daodejing and the Book of Zhuangzi.
These thinkers did not necessarily abandon the ideals of Confucius, but
they often pointed out how frequently rulers in the post-Han world paid
lip service to Confucian ideals while practicing ruthless and immoral
policies.
In the third century ce, the most famous intellectual critics of the
age came to be known as the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove. Named
after the meeting place where they supposedly gathered to drink wine,
play music, and write poetry, they also argued about abstract nonpoliti-
cal issues such as the nature of reality, or being and nonbeing, in a form
of dialogue called “pure talk.” Although there is no hard evidence that
these men actually knew each other in their lifetimes, stories of their
meetings spread far and wide and helped to defi ne a new ideal of culti-
vated literati (or scholar-artists) who sought fulfi llment not in political
engagement but in the private pursuits of pleasure and the arts.
One of the Seven Sages was Ji Kang, a brilliant poet, lute player,
and alchemist who experimented with the transformation of metals in
search of drugs to promote long life. Ji Kang attacked offi cial life as