ing symbolism of money inherent in capitalism.
However, the symbolism of science and technology
remains the greatest influence for his theory of his-
tory. While at the Paris Exposition of 1900, Adams
connects this power of symbolism to the science
and technology of his day. He sees the power of the
dynamo much as he suggests people of the Middle
Ages saw the cross or the Virgin Mary: The power
of both represent a symbol of infinity, or a great
moral force. Adams sees the Virgin as her time’s
dynamo; she was a power of force, a mysterious
bundle of energy. Similarly, the burgeoning inven-
tions in science and technology of the 20th century
represent a phenomenon of new force, which the
individual must learn to grasp.
Since science and technology represent, for
Adams, a large shift from his 18th-century upbring-
ing, he feels he must understand the movement of
history. His ideas of history are found in two chap-
ters in which Adams becomes enamored with the
complexity of the 20th century. The two chapters
in the Education, “A Dynamic Theory of History”
and “A Law of Acceleration,” are his solution to
this complexity. Here, he argues that the solution
is the mind. According to Adams, man has always
conceptualized force into symbols. Since man can
conceptualize force, he can control it. Adams sees
the progress of great ancient civilizations, such as
Rome, as a result of this conceptualization of force.
However, the breakdown of cultures occurs when
man can no longer symbolize force. The Roman
Empire broke down because the symbols did not
keep up with the technological progress. Similarly,
the Middle Ages’ identification with the cross led to
a breakdown, as man no longer conceptualized the
force in the cross. So, Adams contends, the burst of
scientific thinking that led to the Paris Exposition of
1900 was a direct result of man’s free thought away
from any conceptualization of force.
The age’s scientific and technological advances
frighten Adams. He sees the scientific achievements
and technological prowess of his day at Paris, and
he envisions a chaotic future. What members of the
20th century must do, he thinks, is achieve some
kind of symbolization which individuals might
apply to the present. Adams’s search for symbols
leads him from antiquity to his present day. All of
the progresses of civilization that culminated in the
scientific and technological advancements of the
20th century require a symbol, because symbols are
man’s way of apprehending the idea of these forces.
Ultimately, Adams’s theory of history rests on
the power of the mind to apprehend these sym-
bols. Again and again, he acknowledges this fact
throughout the Education. His symbolic entrance
into education provided the point of entry for
Adams. As Adams the boy recognized the force of
his educational life in symbols, so must mankind
harness the force of science and technology in some
kind of symbol. At the end, Adams suggests the
comet, a force that heads to the sun, accelerating its
motion toward a new equilibrium. Like science and
technology, the comet represents a force that has the
power for its own destruction, yet it reverses itself
and embarks on a new course before it collides with
the sun.
The journey of the Education is a journey to
understand the power of change. Adams believed
the power of change in civilization necessitated a
balance between the individual and the innova-
tions of the day. He thought science and technology
needed a symbol to which man could ascribe this
force of progress, and he thought this was the only
possible route to harness this power.
Michael ModarelliALBEE, EDWARD Who’s Afraid of
Virginia Woolf? (1963)
Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? is Edward Albee’s
most successful play, one which has enjoyed a healthy
production history. The original 1963 Broadway
production won the Tony Award and New York
Drama Critics’ Circle Award for best new play, a
1966 film starred the acting legends Richard Bur-
ton and Elizabeth Taylor, and a recent production
(2004–07) played successfully on Broadway and in
London’s West End. While being a box office suc-
cess (the original production ran 644 performances)
and a popular vehicle for major performers, in the
1960s it was one of the most controversial of Albee’s
plays. The nominating jury selected the play for
the 1963 Pulitzer Prize for Drama, but the Pulit-
zer Prize Board refused to give its approval, citingWho’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? 133