756 Melville, Herman
above suggests Christ as “the true Light” ( John 1:9).
The ginger nuts that are his only food are described
as “wafers,” a reference to the Eucharist. The lawyer
also refers to the “advent of Bartleby” and to the fact
that he is “always there.” Bartleby is further associ-
ated with Christ by the number three, which recurs
frequently in the New Testament. Christ is tempted
three times, rises on the third day, and is part of the
Trinity. Bartleby’s first refusal to proofread occurs
the third day after his arrival, and on that earlier
arrival —and again later—he repeats the phrase, “I
would prefer not to” three times. When the lawyer
tells Bartleby he must leave, the scrivener spends
three days before refusing.
Another suggestion of Christianity is the paral-
lel between the lawyer and the apostle Peter. This
identification rests chiefly on the passage in which
the new tenant and the landlord of the lawyer’s
vacated offices attempt to make the lawyer assume
responsibility for Bartleby. In reply, the lawyer denies
Bartleby three times, as Peter did Christ. The phras-
ing of the denials reinforces the comparison: “I do
not know the man,” said Peter (Matt. 26:72). “I
know nothing about him” the lawyer declares.
If the lawyer represents Peter, then his office
and his profession can be viewed as the church
that Peter founded. Numerous allusions link law
documents with religious documents and law ritual
with church ritual. The layout of the lawyer’s
chamber suggests a church. The end of the office
that faces a white wall and is illuminated by “a
spacious sky-light shaft, penetrating the building
from top to bottom” resembles a church altar. The
screen between the lawyer and Bartleby, through
which they can converse without seeing each other,
resembles a confessional. The lawyer’s failure to
recognize Bartleby as Christ, even while describ-
ing him in explicitly Christian terms, is ironic.
The image of Peter enhances this then, for Peter
represents recognition as well as denial. He appears
in the Gospel not only as the apostle who denies
Christ but also as the first one to recognize Him
as the Messiah. That Melville deliberately intended
this association is suggested by another reference to
Peter in “Bartleby.” This is the office key that the
lawyer attempts to get from Bartleby. A common
Petrine symbol in church iconography, the key ref-
erences Christ’s promise to give Peter “the keys of
the kingdom of heaven” (Matt. 16:19). Significantly,
this promise was made as a direct response to Peter’s
first recognition of Christ as the Messiah. The fact
that Bartleby never does give the lawyer his key
points to the fact that the lawyer, unlike Peter, fails
to recognize Bartleby for who he really is.
Susan AmpermELviLLE, HErman “billy budd,
Sailor” (1886, 1924)
“Billy Budd, Sailor,” written in 1886 but not pub-
lished until 1924, tells the unfortunate tale of a shin-
ing young sailor and the tragedy that befalls him.
The protagonist, Billy Budd, is well-liked by the
overwhelming majority of his crewmen and captains.
Early in the tale he is transferred from his position
aboard the Rights of Man and moved to HMS Bel-
lipotent. On this ship he feels scrutinized much more
than on the former, and the sight of a disciplining
causes him to be even more meticulous in his duties.
While he gains the love of the majority of his fellows,
the master-at-arms John Claggart seems to bear him
ill will. Billy finds out about Claggart’s dislike from
an older sailor named Dansker, but Billy, always
seeing the good in people rather than evil, believes
the suspicions to be false. An accident in which
Billy spills food on Claggart appears to reinforce
this, as Claggart reacts in a friendly manner. But an
incident with a mysterious stranger leads Claggart
to accuse Billy of treason. Billy, unable to verbally
defend himself against the accusations and establish
his innocence, lashes out and kills Claggart, which
leads to Billy’s own hanging. Neither the captain nor
the crew wishes to punish Billy in this way, but the
captain feels the need to adhere to the law for fear of
mutiny. Papers pick up on the story and talk of Billy
as treasonous, but the captain and the crew, aware of
Billy’s innocence, tell a different story and the sailor
becomes a legend of sorts.
Ronald Davisindividual and Society in “Billy Budd,
sailor”
Billy Budd epitomizes the individual removed from
greater society. Initially, Billy’s blackness separates