Bibliography
Fisher, Rudolph. “The Backslider.” In The Short Fiction of
Rudolph Fisher,edited by Margaret Perry. Columbia:
University of Missouri Press, 1987.
McCluskey, John Jr. The City of Refuge: The Collected Sto-
ries of Rudolph Fisher.Columbia: University of Mis-
souri Press, 1987.
Perry, Margaret, ed. The Short Fiction of Rudolph Fisher.
New York: Greenwood Press, 1987.
“Back to Africa” Movement
A philosophy and plan associated with MARCUS
GARVEY, the Jamaican leader who established the
UNIVERSALNEGROIMPROVEMENTASSOCIATION,
an organization that advocated his platform that
African Americans would be able to establish
themselves and to flourish in AFRICArather than
in the white Western world.
Bibliography
Cronon, Edmund. Black Moses: The Story of Marcus Gar-
vey and the Universal Improvement Association.Madi-
son: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987.
Hill, Robert, and Barbara Blair. Marcus Garvey, Life and
Lessons: A Centennial Companion to the Marcus Gar-
vey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Pa-
pers.Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
Bagnall, Robert W. (1864–1943)
A graduate of the BISHOPPAYNEDIVINITYSCHOOL
who became an Episcopal priest before he joined the
NAACP staff as director of branches. He combined
a career in the ministry with racial activism and
writing. Several of his essays, including “The Spirit
of the K.K.K.,” which appeared in the September
1923 issue, were published in THECRISIS.
Bibliography
Hughes, Langston. Fight for Freedom: The Story of the
NAACP.New York: Norton, 1962.
Baker, George (Father Divine)(1880–1965)
The well-known founder and beloved leader of the
Peace Mission, an organization that encouraged
African Americans to believe in a God of color,
peace, and prosperity, even in the face of the
GREAT DEPRESSION and entrenched American
racism. Baker, who moved his mission from Long
Island to HARLEMin 1933, offered 15-cent meals,
affordable lodgings, and spiritual support to
African Americans in need. During the 1930s he
protested racial violence and segregation, and he
encouraged the organization’s members to achieve
economic independence and to uphold strict moral
codes.Bibliography
Burnham, Kenneth. God Comes to America: Father Divine
and the Peace Mission Movement.Boston: Lambeth
Press, 1979.
McKay, Claude. Harlem: Negro Metropolis.1940; reprint,
New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1968.
Watts, Jill. God, Harlem, U.S.A.: The Father Divine Story.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.Baker, Josephine(1906–1975)
A dynamic artist in the vibrant New York arts and
entertainment scene during the 1920s and 1930s,
Baker worked as a singer and dancer with leading
composers and musicians, including Noble Sissle
and Eubie Blake. Ultimately, though, Baker pre-
ferred the reception she received in France, where
she appeared in La Revue(1925) and at the Folies-
Bergère, and established her primary residence
there rather than in the United States. She was
awarded the Legion of Honor and the Medallion of
the City of Paris.Bibliography
Baker, Jean-Claude, and Chris Chase. Josephine: The
Hungry Heart.New York: Random House, 1993.
Rose, Phyllis. Jazz Cleopatra: Josephine Baker in Her Time.
New York: Doubleday, 1989.
Wood, Ean. The Josephine Baker Story.London: Sanctu-
ary, 2000.Baker, Ray Stannard(1870–1946)
A journalist and writer who also published under
the name of David Grayson, Stannard was one of
the whites whose support of and interest in African
Americans prompted ZORA NEALEHURSTONto
coin the term “NEGROTARIANS.” Baker was the
first of six sons born to Joseph Stannard and AliceBaker, Ray Stannard 21