Russia’s long-term goal of securing direct trade with China advanced in this
century. Despite China’s anxiety at foreign traders coming inland, the Treaty of
Kiakhta (1727) allowed triennial Russian state embassies and trade caravans to
Beijing. About half a dozen major state caravans reached Beijing between 1727 and
1755, when regional instability brought an end to this important conduit of goods
and information. A vibrant local market developed around Kiakhta on the border,
which in turn stimulated fur exploitation and expansion into eastern and north-
eastern Siberia and much illegal smuggling. Russian caravans brought into China
furs and textiles, often European re-exports, and returned with Chinese textiles,
spices, tea, medicinal rhubarb, and luxury goods. Trekking across Russia’s line of
fortress towns in Siberia, the China trade was primarily transit trade, although
expanding populations in the Urals and western and eastern Siberia also stimulated
regional markets there.
Russia’s victory over the Ottoman empire (1768–74) energized new Black Sea
ports, including Azov, Kerch, Kherson, Taganrog, and eventually (founded 1794)
Odessa. The Treaty of Küçük-Kaynarca (1774) also won Russia crucial rights of
navigation to the Aegean and Mediterranean, rights that were by and large respect-
ed. Catherine II’s tariff treaty of 1783 specified lower tariffs for Black Sea ports to
direct trade to them. Trade immediately surged, since these ports provided an
affordable port for surplus grain from Ukrainian lands not previously well linked
with the Baltic (Chernigov, Poltava, Kyiv provinces), as well as grain from across
the Pontic steppe. Although the export of the food staple rye was always monitored,
the luxury crop of wheat was readily exported. By 1805 70 percent of Russia’s cereal
exports went through Black Sea ports.
As a source of state revenue export trade increasedfifteen-fold in the eighteenth
century. In thefirst half of the century exports shifted away from forest and
agricultural products (tar, timber, hides, tallow) towards manufactured goods
(linen, leather) and iron, whileflax and hemp remained in great demand. By the
end of the century agricultural crops such as hemp andflax still constituted about
40 percent of all exports, iron and textiles another 20 percent, and grain and animal
products (tallow, candles, meat, butter, leather) had moved into dominant place.
Great Britain was Russia’s major trade partner through the century: by 1800 it was
taking in 65 percent of all of Russian exports, including two-thirds of Russia’sflax,
hemp, and woolen exports for the British army and navy. St. Petersburg and Riga
carried over 80 percent of the trade by the end of the century. Russia’s imports
ranged from colonial products (coffee, sugar) and alcoholic beverages to high-
quality luxury goods (silks, jewelry) and foreign raw materials for Russia’s textile
industries. The balance of trade was consistently in Russia’s favor.
TARIFFS
Tariff policy in the eighteenth century pursued the goals of import substitution
(protecting domestic industry from import of manufactured goods and raw mater-
ials that could be produced domestically), creating a favorable balance of trade and
324 The Russian Empire 1450– 1801