776 ★ CHAPTER 19 Safe for Democracy: The United States and WWI
the Wilsonian moment, Lenin’s reputation in the colonial world began to eclipse
that of the American president. But whether communist or not, these movements
announced the emergence of anticolonial nationalism as a major force in world
affairs, which it would remain for the rest of the twentieth century.
“Your liberalness,” one Egyptian leader remarked, speaking of Britain
and America, “is only for yourselves.” Yet ironically, when colonial peoples
demanded to be recognized as independent members of the international com-
munity, they would invoke both the heritage of the American Revolution— the
first colonial struggle that produced an independent nation— and the Wilso-
nian language whereby the self- governing nation- state is the most legitimate
political institution, and all nations deserve equal respect.
As Du Bois recognized, World War I sowed the seeds not of a lasting peace
but of wars to come. German resentment over the peace terms would help to
fuel the rise of Adolf Hitler and the coming of World War II. In the breakup
of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, violence over the status of Northern Ire-
land, and seemingly unending conflicts in the Middle East, the world was still
haunted by the ghost of Versailles.
The Treaty Debate
One final disappointment awaited Wilson on his return from Europe. He
viewed the new League of Nations as the war’s finest legacy. But many Ameri-
cans feared that membership in the League would commit the United States to
an open- ended involvement in the affairs of other countries. Wilson asserted
that the United States could not save the world without being continually
involved with it. His opponents, led by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massa-
chusetts, argued that the League threatened to deprive the country of its free-
dom of action.
A considerable majority of senators would have accepted the treaty with
“reservations” ensuring that the obligation to assist League members against
attack did not supersede the power of Congress to declare war. As governor of
New Jersey and as president, Wilson had proved himself to be a skilled politi-
cian capable of compromising with opponents. In this case, however, convinced
that the treaty reflected “the hand of God,” Wilson refused to negotiate with con-
gressional leaders. In October 1919, in the midst of the League debate, Wilson
suffered a serious stroke. Although the extent of his illness was kept secret, he
remained incapacitated for the rest of his presidency. In effect, his wife, Edith,
headed the government for the next seventeen months. In November 1919 and
again in March 1920, the Senate rejected the Versailles Treaty.
American involvement in World War I lasted barely nineteen months, but
it cast a long shadow over the following decade— and, indeed, the rest of the
century. In its immediate aftermath, the country retreated from international