however, that by the sixth century BC the Iliad and the Odyssey attained essentially the written form in
which we currently have them. But there is no agreement regarding what the poems looked like before the
sixth century, whether they differed from the sixth-century text only slightly, or were substantially
different, or even differed so radically that they would not be recognizable to us as the Iliad and Odyssey.
What does seem reasonably clear, however, is that these two poems reached their present form during the
period from the middle of the eighth to the middle of the sixth century (approximately 750–550 BC), the
period of the development of the polis, the creation of hero cults, Greek territorial expansion, and the rise
of Panhellenic sentiment. The oral tradition of which the Iliad and the Odyssey are the culmination was
engaged during this period in inventing a heroic, Panhellenic tradition that rooted itself in a dimly
remembered Mycenaean heritage. We have seen a reflection of this in Hesiod’s myth, in the Works and
Days, of the generations of humans, with its age of heroes intervening between the ages of bronze and
iron. Since Hesiod’s poem belongs to the tradition of wisdom literature, the age of heroes is described
briefly, in only a few lines of verse. The Iliad and the Odyssey, however, belong to an epic tradition of
large-scale heroic poetry and they aim to tell a coherent story of the heroic past, thereby providing the
present with a “history.” The present, that is the period from approximately 750–550 BC, was the time
when the polis was in the process of formation out of the unstructured communities of the Dark Age. We
can only speculate regarding the character of that process but, given the pervasive competitiveness of the
ancient Greeks, it is natural to assume that the polis took the form that it did as a result of the necessity to
balance the conflicting ambitions of the wealthier and more powerful individuals and families of the
region. This conflict, along with its eventual unstable resolution, may have provided the pattern for the
largely fictitious world of the past, with its volatile and ambitious heroic characters.
“The son of Peleus then laid out other prizes, prizes for swiftness of foot. First was a well-wrought
silver krater. Its capacity was only six measures, but for beauty it was easily the finest in all the
lands, since expert artisans from Sidon had worked it skillfully. Phoenician men had brought it over
the frothy sea and, when they landed in the harbor, they presented it to Thoas as a gift. Euneus, the
son of Jason, gave it to the warrior Patroclus to serve as the ransom price for Lycaon, the son of
Priam. This krater Achilles laid out as a prize in honor of his companion.” (Homer, Iliad 23.740–8)The Homeric poems create an entire society in which these heroes can function, a society that contrasts
markedly with (although it cannot help including elements of) the more egalitarian world of the polis. This
society consists of individuals who are perhaps best thought of as tribal war-lords. Their power resides
not in any kind of organized political structure but in their military effectiveness and their “prestige,” an
intangible but very real capacity for being acknowledged as a leader. This prestige can, of course, be
bolstered by tangible tokens, which Homer often describes in lavish detail. Such tokens can include
valuable items that have been won as prizes in contests, like the tripod won by Hesiod. Homeric
warriors, however, win their prizes in athletic contests or chariot races rather than in musical contests.
Other heroes, who display their own entitlement to honor by giving gifts of great value, are another source
of prestige goods, like golden vessels or horses and chariots. This gift exchange is an important means by
which Homeric heroes establish, maintain, and reconfigure social relationships among themselves. These
gifts are objects of value not merely because they are made of expensive materials or are the products of
fine craftsmanship. They are accompanied by a story that attests to the owner’s standing and his
connections with other influential war-lords. For example, in the Odyssey there is a 30-line account of the
history of Odysseus’ bow, which was given to Odysseus by the hero Iphitus, who inherited it from his
father, the great archer Eurytus, and who was himself later killed by Heracles. Finally, another way in