the new russian nationalismand Russian experience. This makes it appropriate to use concep-
tual approaches originally developed by Western academics for
understanding the reasons for migrantophobia and xenophobia,
in analysing the Russian situation.
How do factors influencing perceptions of migrants ‘work’
in Russia?
In Western research on the causes and manifestations of migranto-
phobia, two groups of fundamentally different factors are usually
identified as independent variables, hypothetically influencing the
position of the local population.
The first group of factors is contextual, or structural: these factors
describe the state of the society in which the individual or group
lives, and to which s/he belongs. The number/ proportion of migrants
(index of threat) and the economic situation in the host country
(index of competition), measured by growth/fall in gross domestic
product (GDP), unemployment levels, regional development levels
and so forth, are often tested out as potential ‘provokers’ of nega-
tive attitudes to migrants (see Semyonov et al. 2006; Rustenbach
2010; Bilodeau and Fadol 2011; Careja and Andres 2013).
In comparing the Russian and Western situations, however, we
are mainly interested in the second group of factors: characteris-
tics of the individuals themselves. Generally, socio- demographic
indicators are tested for influence on negative attitudes towards
migration: age, sex, education level and social status (availabil-
ity of work; level and dynamics of income). Political orientation
is also seen as a factor. There is almost no disagreement over
its influence: in various countries, holding right- wing political
views is highly likely to be accompanied by negative attitudes to
migrants (see Rustenbach 2010; Waldinger 2010; Bilodeau and
Fadol 2011; Careja and Andres 2013). The human capital expla-
nation is also frequent. Education levels are linked to anti- migrant
sentiments: people with higher education are usually found to be
more tolerant (Bilodeau and Fadol 2011: 1092, 1104; Rustenbach
2010: 56, 66; Careja and Andres 2013: 383).
Regarding age, for various reasons, older people are seen as
holding more negative attitudes towards migrants (see Careja and