the younger women first grasped and exposed the ubiquitousness of the relationships, both public and
personal, that structure domination and inequality. Within a few years, the differences between the older
and younger streams of feminism began to fade.
Feminist organizing differed from that of the civil rights and labor movements, because unlike
members of those movements, who knew that they were discriminated against and exploited, many white
middle-class women were unconscious of their own oppression and limited opportunities. This was
partly because many of them had spent most of their years in school, where sex discrimination was less
marked than in the worlds of employment and housewifery. But their lack of consciousness also arose
from accepting the gender system as a “natural” and inevitable outgrowth of their sex. They had to unlearn
what Marxists call a false consciousness. The impact of consciousness-raising groups can be seen in the
fact that most Americans today understand the difference between “sex,” a biological category, and
“gender,” a matter of socialization. This was a distinction entirely new in 1969.
Exploring the hidden injuries of gender had to be accomplished in small and women-only groups. The
groups provided permission to complain and vent anger without fear of consequences and offered
freedom to explore the intimate. They also provided comparisons that gave rise to analyses. As Amy
Kesselman recalled, “It replaced self-hatred with both anger and political analysis; it made sense of the
world, reconnected me with other women, and gave shape to a host of unformed thoughts and feelings that
had lurked for years in the shadows of my consciousness.”^8
Women were learning by questioning all the conventions of gender and male dominance. As one
consciousness-raising group member put it, “In the sixties I knew, successful women were successful at
pleasing men.”^9 It was as if they became anthropologists, studying themselves and their communities,
unearthing the processes of gender and male dominance. They were claiming that they were the experts on
their own lives, refusing to defer any longer to the doctors and preachers and politicians who declaimed
about what was normal for women. Their meetings were not therapy, although they were supportive; they
were not bitch sessions, although plenty of anger and pain was let loose. For most, they were exhilarating
and empowering. As poet and journalist Susan Sutheim wrote:
today
i lost my temper.temper, when one talks of metal
means make strong,
perfect.temper, for humans, means angry
irrational
badtoday i found my temper.
i said,
you step on my head . . .
today i think
i prefer my head to your clumsiness.today i begin