to the controversy of the burqa is an effective way of drawing out both the
philosophical bases and political implications of multiculturalism. We organise our
concluding reflections around a number of themes:
(a) Agency and identity We argued in the section on multiculturalism and the
politics of identity that multiculturalists draw on the liberal conception of the
human agent as a being capable of shaping his or her identity, but criticise
liberals for offering an ‘empty’ or ‘a-cultural’ conception of human agency. To
varying degrees, the thinkers discussed in the previous section offer what they
claim is an improved model of human identity and human agency. The burqa
represents the outward sign not only of Muslim identity, but a gendered Muslim
identity. In wearing the burqa a woman distinguishes herself as a woman from
other women. Whether or not this is a good thing we explored in the section
on culture and gender.
(b) Culture versus rationalityIf culture is something we are born into and take for
granted, then reason, which entails conscious evaluation and criticism, would
appear hostile to culture. Again, insofar as liberalism stresses a rationalist
approach to politics it is perceived as hostile to multiculturalism. Much of the
work of multiculturalists is concerned with reconciling culture and reason.
Although they offer very different conceptions of reason, for Tully, Rawls and
Kymlicka the way we reason about just institutions is central to their defence
of multiculturalism. Defenders of the French ban argue that the French state is
giving Muslim women the space in which they can make judgements about
their religious identity and beliefs; such a defence presupposes that it is possible
to stand back from your culture and evaluate it.
(c) Freedom Whereas liberals tend to discuss freedom in abstract terms, exemplified
by charters of fundamental freedoms, multiculturalists contextualise freedom.
Certainly many of the thinkers we have discussed defend the traditional liberal
freedoms, but they also argue that liberalism can be intolerant, and it is most
often intolerant when it claims to be defending freedom. For example, Muslim
women ‘forced’ to wear theburqamay claim that Western, non-Muslim women
are not free if they are continually the object of the male sexualised gaze. Of
course this claim can be challenged, especially when Muslim women are indeed
forced to wear theburqa but the claim is at least provocative: freedom is
enjoyed in a cultural context. You can be formally free but oppressed by social
mores.
(d) Difference and equality Both feminists and multiculturalists have forced liberals
to re-evaluate their idea of equality. For liberals, human beings are morally
equal, and that moral equality translates into a certain political equality, and
a rather limited material equality. Men and women, as well as different cultural
groups, may be morally equal, but they are still different – how we translate
that conjunction of equality in difference into political principles and political
institutions is a major challenge. The French state has made a judgement in
favour of secular equality, whereas defenders of the burqa argue for equality
in difference.
Chapter 15 Multiculturalism 353