argue, morally and intellectually unsustainable. The second position – particularism
- maintains the discrepancy is justifiable because universalism is, at a basic level,
false. The third position – the ‘political conception’ – recognises the force of
universalist arguments but claims that morality has different levels and the fact that
in a nation-state we are subject to coercive authority generates special duties in the
domestic sphere that have no global equivalents.
Questions
- Are national boundaries morally arbitrary?
- In a world of self-subsistent – autarkic – states, would the rich have any
obligations to the poor? - Should a state have full rights to benefit from natural resources located in its
territory? - Does coercion make a difference to our moral duties?
References
Beitz, C. (1999) Political Theory and International RelationsPrinceton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
Hare, R. (1989) Essays on Political MoralityOxford: Clarendon Press.
MacIntyre, A. (1995) ‘Is Patriotism a Virtue?’ in R. Beiner (ed.) Theorizing Citizenship
Albany: State University of New York Press.
Miller, D. (1995) On NationalityOxford: Clarendon Press.
Miller, D. (2000) Citizenship and National IdentityCambridge: Polity Press.
Nagel, T. (1991) Equality and PartialityOxford: Oxford University Press.
Nagel, T. (2005) ‘The Problem of Global Justice’ Philosophy and Public Affairs33(2),
113–47.
Parfit, D. (1984) Reasons and PersonsOxford: Clarendon Press.
Pogge, T. (2002) World Poverty and Human Rights: Cosmopolitan Responsibilities and
Reforms Cambridge: Polity Press.
Rawls, J. (1972) A Theory of JusticeOxford: Oxford University Press.
Rawls, J. (1999) The Law of PeoplesCambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Rawls, J. (2001) Justice as Fairness: A RestatementCambridge, MA: Belknap, Harvard
University Press.
Sen, A. (1999) Development as FreedomOxford: Oxford University Press.
Singer, P. (1972) ‘Famine, Affluence, and Morality’ Philosophy and Public Affairs1(3),
229–43.
Further reading
In addition to the works cited in the chapter – all of which are important contributions to
the debate – the following books, chapters and articles are useful. Works on immigration by
Joseph Carens, include, among others, ‘Aliens and Citizens: The Case for Open Borders’, in
W. Kymlicka (ed.) The Rights of Minority Cultures(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995);
Chapter 22 Global justice 499