- Postconventional level—reached by only some people in the formal operational
stage.
stage 5—social contract, to promote society’s welfare
stage 6—to promote justice
Carol Gilligan criticized Kohlberg’s study because it focused on males, and women rarely
reach Kohlberg’s highest stage. She said women follow an ethic of care, rather than justice.Social Development
Social development looks at the influence of others on the development of a person.Culture—behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions transmitted from one generation
to the next within a group of people who share a common language and environment.Bonding—creation of close emotional relationship between mother (or parents) and
baby shortly after birth.Attachment—a close emotional bond or relationship between the infant and the
caregiver.Harry Harlow found monkeys separated from their mothers sought comfort from a
soft cloth-covered substitute (surrogate) rather than a bare wire substitute with a feed-
ing bottle, showing attachment isn’t based on feeding.Mary Ainsworth’s “strange situation” research categorized a type of attachment based
on how a baby reacted to, and after, temporary absence of mother:- Secure attachment—after absence baby is happy to see mother, receptive to her con-
tact. Securely attached babies tend to become socially competent children. - Insecure attachment—after absence baby is angry and rejecting of mother, avoids her,
ignores her, or behaves inconsistently.
Temperament—an infant’s natural disposition to show a particular mood at a particular
intensity for a specific period.Self-awareness—consciousness of oneself as a person.Social referencing—observing the behavior of others in social situations to obtain
information or guidance.Diana Baumrind identified four parenting styles that affect emotional growth of
children:- Authoritarian parenting style—sets up absolute and restrictive rules accompanied
by punishment for disobedience. - Authoritative parenting style—focuses on flexible rules for which reasons are
generally given. Parents are warm and nurture independence within guidelines. - Permissive parenting style—sets no firm guidelines for behavior and tends to give
in to demands of the child. - Uninvolved parenting style—makes few demands, shows low responsiveness and
little communication.
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