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Deep processing—semantic encoding involves forming an association or attaching
meaning to a sensory impression and results in longer-lasting memories;
Self-reference effect or self-referent encoding—processing information deemed
important or relevant more deeply, making it easier to recall.- Atkinson–Shiffrin model: Three memory systems
Sensory memory—memory system that holds external events from the senses for up
to a few seconds.- Visual encoding—the encoding of picture images;
- Iconic memory—a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli;
- Acoustic encoding—the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words;
- Echoic memory—a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli;
- Selective attention—the focusing of awareness on stimuli in sensory memory that
facilitates its encoding into STM; - Automatic processing—unconscious encoding of information about space,
time and frequency that occurs without interfering with our thinking about
other things; - Parallel processing—a natural mode of information processing that involves sev-
eral information streams simultaneously; - Effortful processing—encoding that requires our attention and conscious effort;
- Feature extraction (pattern recognition)—finding a match for new raw informa-
tion in sensory storage by actively searching through long-term memory.
Short-term memory—working memory, 20 seconds before forgotten; capacity
of seven plus or minus two items. - Rehearsal—conscious repetition of information to either maintain information in
STM or to encode it for storage; - Maintenance rehearsal—repetition that keeps information in STM about 20 sec-
onds; - Elaborative rehearsal—repetition that creates associations between the new
memory and existing memories stored in LTM; - Chunking—grouping information into meaningful units increasing the capacity
of STM; - Mnemonic devices—memory tricks or strategies to make information easier to
remember; - Method of loci—uses visualization with familiar objects on a path to recall
information in a list; - Peg word system—uses association of terms to be remembered with a memorized
scheme (“One is a bun, two is...”).
Baddeley’s working memory model—a more complex model than just passive STM;
includes a phonological loop, visuospatial working memory, and the central executive.
Long-term memory—relatively permanent storage with unlimited capacity, LTM is
subdivided into explicit (declarative) memory and implicit memory. - Explicit memory (declarative)—memory of facts and experiences that one
consciously knows and can verbalize. Explicit memory is subdivided into semantic
memory and episodic memory.
Semantic memory—memory of general knowledge or objective facts
Episodic memory—memory of personally experienced events
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