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Generalization—in classical conditioning, CRs
elicited by stimuli that resemble the CS used in
training. In operant conditioning, the occurrence
of responding when a stimulus similar (but not
identical) to the discriminative stimulus is present.
Generalized anxiety disorder—an anxiety disorder
characterized by persistent, pervasive feelings of
doom for at least six months not associated with a
particular object or situation.
Generalized reinforcer—secondary reinforcers that
are associated with a wide variety of other rein-
forcers, like money, which is almost guaranteed to
be motivating.
Genital stage—the final of Freud’s psychosexual
stages, during which the adolescent develops adult
sexual desires; pleasure from intercourse and inti-
macy with opposite sex and/or same sex.
Genotype—the genetic make-up of an individual
for a trait.
Gerontologist—person who specializes in the study
of aging
Gestalt therapy—developed by Perls, a humanistic
therapy emphasizing the unity of mind and body;
teaches the client to “get in touch” with uncon-
scious bodily sensations and emotions.
Glial cells—supportive cells of the nervous system
that guide the growth of developing neurons, help
provide nutrition for and get rid of wastes of neu-
rons, and form an insulating sheath around neu-
rons that speeds conduction.
Grammar—a system of rules that enables us to com-
municate with and understand others.
Grasping reflex—infant closes his/her fingers
tightly around an object put in his/her hand.
Group polarization—when like-minded people share
ideas, outcome is likely to be more extreme than
individual positions; looked at in juries’ decisions.
Group test—many people are tested at same time;
cheaper and more objective scoring than individ-
ualized testing; may not be as accurate.
Groupthink—the tendency for individuals to
censor their own beliefs to preserve the harmony
of the group; lack of diversity of viewpoints that
can cause disastrous results in decision making.
Gyri—folding-out portions of convolutions of the
cerebral cortex.
Habituation—decreasing responsiveness with
repeated presentation of the same stimulus.
Hallucinations—perceptual experiences that occur
in the absence of external stimulation of the
corresponding sensory organ; characteristic of
schizophrenia and some drug states.
Hallucinogens—also called psychedelics, a diverse
group of psychoactive drugs that alter moods, dis-
tort perceptions, and evoke sensory images in the
absence of sensory input; include LSD, PCP, mar-
ijuana (THC), psilocybin from mushrooms, and
mescaline (Peyote).
Hawthorn effect—when people know that they are
being observed, they change their behavior to
what they think the observer expects or to make
themselves look good.
Health psychologists—psychologists who study
how health and illness are influenced by emo-
tions, stress, personality, and life style.
Heritability—the proportion of variation among
individuals, inapopulation, that results from
genetic causes.
Heterosexuality—a tendency to direct sexual desire
toward people of the opposite sex.
Heterozygous—also called hybrid, the condition
when the genes for a trait are different.
Heuristic—a problem-solving strategy used as a
mental shortcut to quickly simplify and solve
a problem, but that does not guarantee a correct
solution.
Hierarchies— systems in which items are arranged
from more general to more specific classes.
Hierarchy of needs theory—Abraham Maslow’s
humanistic theory of priorities from the lower
levels of 1) basic biological needs, 2) safety and
security needs, 3) belongingness and love, 4) self-
esteem needs to 5) self-actualization needs; a
lower need must be fulfilled before we can fulfill
the next higher need.
Higher-order conditioning—classical conditioning
in which a well-learned CS is paired with an NS
to produce a CR to the NS.
Hindsight bias—a tendency to falsely report, after
the event, that we correctly predicted the outcome
of the event.
Hippocampus—part of limbic system of brain that
enables formation of new long-term memories for
facts and personal experiences.
Holophrase—one-word meaningful utterances of
children from ages of 1 to 2.
Homeostasis—the body’s tendency to maintain a
balanced internal state.
Homosexuality—a tendency to direct sexual desire
toward another person of the same sex.Glossary ❮ 323