173CHAPTER 8
Early Homo and the
Origins of Culture
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What Were the Cultural
Capabilities of Our Ancestors?
The archaeological record, starting with the oldest known artifacts—stone
tools dated to between 2.5 and 2.6 mya from Gona, Ethiopia—provides
tangible evidence of H. habilis’ culture in the distant past. These mark
the start of the Lower Paleolithic or Lower Stone Age. With the appear-
ance of H. erectus, more sophisticated stone tools included the hand axe
and other tools of the Acheulean industry along with innovations such
as the controlled use of fire (for light, warmth, protection, and cooking),
travel across bodies of water, and hunting with specialized tools. The
Middle Paleolithic that followed is marked by a diversification of tool
types and more sophisticated methods of fabrication. The best-known industry of this period,
the Mousterian, began around 166,000 years ago and was used by all people—Neandertals as
well as other members of the genus Homo said to possess more anatomically modern skulls—in
Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia up until 40,000 years ago.
When, Where, and How Did
the Genus Homo Develop?
Since the late 1960s, a number of sites in South and East Africa have pro-
duced the fossil remains of lightly built bipeds all but indistinguishable from
the earlier gracile australopithecines, except that the teeth are smaller and the
brain is significantly larger relative to body size. The earliest fossils to exhibit
these trends appeared around 2.5 million years ago (mya), along with the
earliest evidence of stone tool making. Homo habilis or “handy man” was the
name given to the first members of the genus as a reflection of their tool-
making capacities. While paleoanthropologists debate the number of species
of early Homo existing during this time period, most concur that the genus
Homo developed from one of the smaller-brained bipedal australopithecines
in Africa by 2.5 mya. By 1.8 mya, brain size along with cultural capabilities
increased considerably, marking the appearance of the species Homo erectus,
a fossil group that appears to have descended through variational change
from H. habilis. Equipped with larger brains and more sophisticated tools,
H. erectus spread from Africa into previously uninhabited regions of Eurasia
and distinct regional features appear in the fossil record. Paleoanthropolo-
gists debate whether this variation constitutes separate species and the rela-
tionship of these ancestral forms to modern Homo sapiens. The controversy
intensifies when it comes to Neandertals, the large-brained, robust, muscular
members of the genus Homo from Southwest Asia and Europe.
What Is the Relationship Between
Biological Change and Cultural
Change in the Genus Homo?
Paleoanthropological reconstructions of the cul-
ture and behavior of our ancestors are based on
evidence about the environment; archaeological
remains of tools, hearths, and shelters; and biolog-
ical data about teeth, musculature, brain size and
structure. Paleoanthropologists attribute the cul-
tural change of making stone tools with the bio-
logical change of increased brain size because both
appear at the same time in archaeological remains
and fossil evidence. The fabrication and use of
stone tools needed to crack open bones of animals
for marrow or to butcher dead animals required
improved eye–hand coordination and a precision
grip. These behavioral abilities depended on the
capacity to learn and communicate, which de-
pended on larger, more complex brains. Once the
brain size of genus Homo reached modern propor-
tions between 200,000 and 400,000 years ago, the
clear relationship between cultural capabilities and
brain size uncoupled. Some fossil skulls retained
a number of ancestral features, as well as some
specialized features typically not seen in modern
Homo sapiens. Archaeological evidence shows that
cultures throughout the globe had become rich
and varied. These ancient peoples produced tools
for specific purposes and objects for purely sym-
bolic use; they also practiced ceremonial activities
and cared for the old and disabled.