174 CHAPTER 8 | Early Homo and the Origins of Culture
Paleoanthropologists are faced with evidence that is often
scant, enigmatic, or full of misleading and even contra-
dictory clues. The quest for the origin of modern humans
from more ancient bipeds confronts mysteries, none of
which has been completely resolved to this day.
Some of the mystery stems from the kind of evolution-
ary change that was set in motion with the appearance of
the genus Homo. Beginning 2.5 mya, several million years
after the appearance of bipedalism separated the human
evolutionary line from those of the other African apes,
brain size of our ancestors began to increase. Simultane-
ously, these early ancestors increased their cultural ma-
nipulation of the physical world through their use of stone
tools. These new bipeds were the first members of the ge-
nus Homo. Over time, they increasingly relied on cultural
adaptation as a rapid and effective way to adjust to the
environment.
While the evolution of culture became critical for human
survival, it was intricately tied to underlying biological ca-
pacities, specifically the evolution of the human brain. Over
the course of the next 2.2 million years, increasing brain size
and specialization of function (evidence preserved in fossil-
ized skulls) permitted the development of language, plan-
ning, new technologies, and artistic expression. With the
evolution of a brain that made versatile behavior possible,
members of the genus Homo became biocultural beings.
Biological anthropologist Misia Landau has noted that
the human being can be thought of as the hero in the nar-
rative of human evolutionary history.^1 The hero, or evolv-
ing human, is faced with a series of natural challenges that
cannot be overcome from a strictly biological standpoint.
Endowed with the gift of intelligence, the hero can meet
these challenges and become fully human. In this narra-
tive, cultural capabilities increasingly separate humans
from other evolving animals. But biological change and
cultural change are very different phenomena. Cultural
equipment and techniques can develop rapidly with in-
novations occurring during the lifetime of individuals. By
contrast, because it depends upon heritable traits, biologi-
cal change requires many generations.
Paleoanthropologists consider whether an evident cul-
tural change, such as a new type of stone tool, corresponds
to a major biological change, such as the appearance of
a new species. Reconciling the relation between biologi-
cal and cultural change is often a source of debate within
paleoanthropology.The Discovery of the First
Stone Toolmaker
The renowned paleoanthropologists Louis and Mary
Leakey began their search for human origins at Olduvai
Gorge, Tanzania, because of the presence of crude stone
tools found there. The tools were found in deposits dating
back to very early in the Pleistocene epoch, which began
almost 2 mya. The oldest tools found at Olduvai Gorge de-
fined the Oldowan tool tradition.
These earliest identifiable tools consist of a num-
ber of implements made using a system of manufacture
called the percussion method (Figure 8.1). Sharp-edged
flakes were obtained from a stone (often a large, water-
worn cobble) either by using another stone as a hammer
(a hammerstone) or by striking the cobble against a large
rock (anvil) to remove the flakes. The finished flakes hadHomo The genus of bipeds that appeared 2.5 million years
ago, characterized by increased brain size compared to earlier
bipeds. The genus is divided into various species based on
features such as brain size, skull shape, and cultural capabilities.
Oldowan tool tradition The first stone tool industry, begin-
ning between 2.5 and 2.6 million years ago.
percussion method A technique of stone tool manufacture
performed by striking the raw material with a hammerstone or
by striking raw material against a stone anvil to remove flakes.(^1) Landau, M. (1991). Narratives of human evolution. New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press.
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2
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Figure 8.1 By 2.5 million years ago, early Homo in Africa had
invented the percussion method of stone tool manufacture.
This technological breakthrough, which is associated with a
significant increase in brain size, made possible the butchering
of meat from scavenged carcasses.