The Question of Language 189Lower Paleolithic tools indicates that the kind of brain
specialization required for language that is present in
contemporary humans was well under way (Figure 8.7).
The vocal tract and brain of H. erectus are intermediate
between those of H. sapiens and earlier Australopithecus. The
hypoglossal canal—the passageway through the skull that
accommodates the nerve that controls tongue movement,
which is so important for spoken language—has taken on
the characteristic large size seen in contemporary humans in
fossil skulls dated to 500,000 years ago (Figure 8.8).^23
Possibly, a changeover from reliance on gestural to
spoken language was a driving force in these evolutionary
changes. The reduction of tooth and jaw size, facilitating
the ability to articulate speech sounds, may have also played
a role. From an evolutionary standpoint, spoken language
could be said to provide some advantages over a gestural
one. Individuals do not have to stop whatever they are doing
with their hands to “talk” (useful to a species increasingly
dependent on tool use), and it is possible to talk in the dark,
past opaque objects, or among people whose gaze is con-
centrated on something else (potential prey, for example).of 800,000-year-old stone tools on
Flores indicates that somehow
our ancestors navigated
across the deep, fast-
moving water.^20
Evidence for a de-
veloping symbolic life
is suggested by the in-
creased standardization
and refinement of Acheu-
lean hand-axes over time.
Moreover, at several
sites in Europe, delib-
erately marked objects
of stone, bone, and ivory have been found in Acheulean
contexts. These include several objects from Bilzingsleben,
Germany—among them a mastodon bone with a series of
regular lines that appear to have been deliberately engraved.
Similarly, the world’s oldest known rock carvings are associ-
ated with Acheu lean tools in a cave in India.^21 Though a far
cry from the later Upper Paleolithic cave art of France and
Spain, these are among the earliest Paleolithic artifacts that
have no obvious utility or model in the natural world. Ar-
chaeologist Alexander Marshack argues that the use of such
symbolic images requires some sort of spoken language, not
only to assign meaning to the images but to maintain the
tradition they seem to represent.^22
The Question of Language
Though we do not have definitive evidence of H. erectus’
linguistic abilities, indications of a developing symbolic
life, as well as the need to plan for seasonal changes and to
coordinate hunting activities (and cross stretches of open
water), imply improving linguistic competence. Another
interesting source of evidence for evolving humans’ lin-
guistic capability is found in the fossil record. There, it is
apparent that the majority of the stone tools were made
by right-handed individuals, supporting the theory of the
increased specialization and lateralization of the evolving
brain. In other primates and most mammals, the right
and left sides of the brain duplicate each other’s function;
these animals use the right and left sides of their bodies
equally and interchangeably. In humans, the emergence
of handedness seems closely linked both developmentally
(at about the age of 1 year) and evolutionarily with the
appearance of language. Thus evidence of handedness in
(^20) Gibbons, A. (1998). Ancient island tools suggest Homo erectus was a sea-
farer. Science 279, 1635.
(^21) Bednarik, R. G. (1995). Concept-mediated marking in the Lower Paleo-
lithic. Current Anthropology 36, 610–611.
(^22) Marshack, A. (1976). Some implications of the Paleolithic symbolic evi-
dence for the origin of language. Current Anthropology 17, 280.
(^23) Cartmill, M. (1998). The gift of gab. Discover 19 (11), 64.
INDONESIA
SUMATRA
SUMBAWABALI FLORESTIMOR
SULAWESI
BORNEO
JAVA
THAILAND VIETNAM
PHILIPPINES
MALAYSIA
CAMBODIA
BRUNEI
SINGAPORE
(^) IND
ONESIA
Indian
Ocean
Motor cortex Parietal lobe
Broca’s area
(language production)
Wernicke’s area
(language comprehension)
Frontal lobe
Temporal lobe
Hearing
Brain stem
Cerebellum
Occipital
lobe
Figure 8.7 Language areas in the left side of the brain.
The right side of the human brain has different specialized
functions.
hypoglossal canal The opening in the skull that accommo-
dates the tongue-controlling hypoglossal nerve.