relation to several of Israel’s most venerable institutions—for example, Sabbath
observances, the Temple, and ritual purity—while associating with the “lowlifes”
of society. In short, whereas the Jewish people were (and still are) awaiting the
Messiah, Christians believed (and still believe) Jesus of Nazareth was the
Messiah.
Christians held that after his death by crucifixion, Jesus rose from the dead
(the Resurrection) and taught his followers for forty days before ascending into
heaven. As part of that teaching, Jesus promised that he would return again (the
Second Coming parousia) and that in the meantime his followers should spread
the Christian faith to all the world.
The basic Christian belief was (and still is) that Jesus is the Son of God who
became a human (the Incarnation) to atone for human sin (Redemption). The sev-
ered relationship between the Holy God and sinful humanity could be restored
only through the sacrifice of one who was consummate righteousness. As the
Word (Logos) of God made flesh, Jesus was that righteousness, made that sacri-
fice, and offered that restoration. Through faith, Christians accept this work done
on their behalf (Justification) and receive the power of God’s spirit to overcome
sin and to serve others (Sanctification).
As Christians spread this message throughout the Roman Empire, they
encountered resistance and persecution from both Jewish and Roman authorities.
Many Jewish leaders objected to the Christian identification of Jesus with God;
Roman authorities objected to the Christians’ unwillingness to participate in
emperor worship. Jews, too, had refused to participate in state religion and had
often been persecuted. But Christians posed a unique threat to the Romans
because, unlike the Jews, Christians proclaimed a supranational, supraracial,
universal Lord—one very much in competition with Caesar. And Christians inde-
fatigably sought converts to their universal Savior. Accordingly, they were perse-
cuted on and off for three centuries.
Despite persecution, Christianity grew steadily in the centuries after Christ.
There have been many explanations for that growth. The eighteenth-century histo-
rian Edward Gibbon* listed five causes: (1) Christianity’s inheritance of the zeal of
the Jews; (2) its connection to the philosophical doctrine of the immortality of the
soul; (3) its claim of miracles; (4) the virtue of the early Christians; and (5) the
organization of the church. Recent historians have pointed to the moral exclusivity
of Christians, who demanded deep commitment; the definite and absolute charac-
ter of Christian belief in an age of uncertainty; and the social dimensions of
Christianity, which made it attractive to women, the poor, and the oppressed.**
As Christianity grew, doctrinal disputes inevitably arose. What was true
Christianity? The answers tended to reflect deep convictions about two essential
issues: the nature of the person and work of Jesus Christ and the relationship
between faith and reason. What was the relationship between Jesus and God? Did
Jesus have two distinct natures: one divine and one human? Or were they merged
into a single unique nature? Moreover, if there is only one God, how could God
also be three (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit)? And how could reason resolve issues
of faith?
268 CHRISTIANITY ANDMEDIEVALPHILOSOPHY
*The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,Chapter XV.
**Of course, Christians have always claimed that none of these reasons is entirely adequate
and that the most acceptable explanation for the rise of Christianity is a supernatural one.
